Модуль I. Английский язык

МОДУЛЬ I. Английский язык

Блок 1

Образцы текстов общенаучного характера для письменного перевода со словарем:

Civil engineering

Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction and maintenance of the physical and natural built environment, including works such as bridges, roads, canals, dams and buildings. Civil engineering is the oldest engineering discipline after military engineering, and they have defined civil engineering to distinguish it from military engineering. They have broken it into several sub-disciplines including municipal engineering, environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, transportation engineering, water resources engineering, materials engineering, coastal engineering, surveying, and construction engineering. Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and architecture, and the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to the same person, often used interchangeably. The history of the concept of "engineering" stems from the earliest times when humans began to make clever inventions, such as the pulley, lever, or wheel, etc. The exact etymology of the word engineer, however, is a person occupationally connected with the study, design, and implementation of engines. Engineering is a well respected profession. Every product or construction used by modern society will have been influenced by engineering design.

Гражданское строительство

Гражданское строительство – это профессиональная, строительная дисциплина, которая связана с проектированием, строительством и обслуживанием природных и созданных человеком строительных объектов, включая мосты, дороги, каналы, дамбы и здания. Гражданское строительство – это старейшая строительная дисциплина помимо военного строительства, и ей дали определение «гражданское строительство» для того, чтобы отличить «гражданское строительство» от «военного строительства». Эту дисциплину подразделили на несколько под-дисциплин, включая муниципальное строительство, инженерную экологию, геотехнику, инженерию, проектирование зданий и сооружений, транспортное машиностроение, организацию водных ресурсов, технологию материалов, прибрежную технику, геодезию и строительную технику. До нашего времени не было четкого разграничения между понятиями «гражданское строительство» и «архитектура», и термин «инженер» и «архитектор» были в основном географическими вариантами, относящимися к одному и тому же лицу, часто используемые взаимозаменяемо. История понятия «инженерия» берет свое начало с ранних времен, когда люди начали делать умные изобретения, такие как шкив, рычаг, колесо и т. д. Точная этимология слова инженер, однако, - это человек, по долгу службы связанный с изучением, проектированием и запуском двигателя. Инженерное дело – это очень уважаемая профессия. На производство любого продукта или на строительный процесс, используемые современным обществом, безусловно, будет оказывать влияние инженерный проект.

Industrial engineering

Industrial engineering is a branch of engineering that concerns the development, improvement, implementation and evaluation of integrated systems of people, money, knowledge, information, equipment, energy, material and process. Industrial engineering draws upon the principles and methods of engineering analysis and synthesis, as well as mathematical, physical and social sciences together with the principles and methods of engineering analysis and design to specify, predict and evaluate the results to be obtained from such systems. In lean manufacturing systems, industrial engineers work to eliminate wastes of time, money, materials, energy, and other resources. Industrial engineering is also known as operations management, systems engineering, production engineering, manufacturing engineering or manufacturing systems engineering; a distinction that seems to depend on the viewpoint or motives of the user. Examples of where industrial engineering might be used include shortening lines (or queues) at a theme park, streamlining an operating room, distributing products worldwide (also referred to as Supply Chain Management), and manufacturing cheaper and more reliable automobiles. Industrial engineers typically use computer simulation, especially discrete event simulation, for system analysis and evaluation.

Организация производства

Организация производства – это направление производства, которое связано с развитием, усовершенствованием, применением и оценкой интеграционных систем людских ресурсов, денежных средств, знаний, информации, оборудования, энергии, материалов и процессов. Организация производства основывается на принципах и методах производственного анализа и синтеза, также как и на математических, физических и социальных науках вместе с принципами и методами производственного анализа и расчета для того, чтобы уточнить, спрогнозировать и оценить результаты, полученные от таких систем. В небольших производственных системах, инженеры-технологи работают для того, чтобы избежать потерь времени, денежных затрат, материалов, энергозатрат и других ресурсов. Организация производства также известна как операционный менеджмент, системное производство, организация производственного процесса и организация процесса обработки; различие, которое, как представляется, зависит от точки зрения или мотивов пользователя. Примеры того, где организация производства может использоваться, могут включать сокращение очереди в парке развлечений, упорядочение рабочего места, распределение продуктов во всем мире (также рассматриваемое как сетевой маркетинг) и производство более дешевых и более надежных автомобилей. Инженеры-технологи обычно используют компьютерное моделирование, особенно моделирование отдельных ситуаций, для анализа системы и её оценки.

Electrical engineering

Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century. The first electrical engineer was probably William Gilbert who designed the versorium: a device that detected the presence of statically charged objects. He was also the first to draw a clear distinction between magnetism and static electricity and is credited with establishing the term electricity. Electrical engineering — sometimes referred to as electrical and electronic engineering — is an engineering field that deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics and electromagnetism. Electrical engineering is considered to deal with the problems associated with large-scale electrical systems such as power transmission and motor control, whereas electronic engineering deals with the study of small-scale electronic systems including computers and integrated circuits. Another way of looking at the distinction is that electrical engineers are usually concerned with using electricity to transmit energy, while electronic engineers are concerned with using electricity to transmit information. Electrical engineers have contributed to the development of a wide range of technologies. They design, develop, test and supervise the deployment of electrical systems and electronic devices. For example, they may work on the design of telecommunication systems, the operation of electric power stations, the lighting and wiring of buildings, the design of household appliances or the electrical control of industrial machinery.

Электротехника

Электричество было предметом научного интереса, по меньшей мере, с начала 17 века. Первым электротехником был, наверное, Вильям Гилберт, который изобрел версориум: устройство, которое обнаружило присутствие статически заряженных объектов. Он также был первым, кто выявил четкое различие между магнетизмом и статическим электричеством, и ему приписывают введение термина «электричество». Электротехника – на которую иногда ссылаются как на электрическую и электронную технику – это область техники, которая имеет дело с изучением и применением электричества, электроники и электромагнетизма. Считается, что электротехника имеет дело с проблемами, связанными с крупномасштабными электросистемами, такими как передача энергии и управление моторами, в то время, как электронная техника имеет дело с изучением небольших электронных систем, включая компьютеры и интегральные цепи. Иной взгляд на различие заключается в том, что инженеры-электрики обычно связаны с использованием электричества для передачи энергии, в то время, как инженеры-электроники связаны с использованием электричества для передачи информации. Инженеры-электрики внесли огромный вклад в развитие широкой сферы технологий. Они проектируют, разрабатывают, тестируют и руководят размещением электросистем и электронных устройств. Например, они могут работать над проектированием телекоммуникационных систем, функционированием электростанций, освещением и прокладыванием электропроводки для зданий, проектированием предметов бытового назначения или осуществлять электроконтроль промышленного оборудования.

Блок 2

Реферирование газетной статьи.

Памятка

по реферированию газетной статьи.

1.  Определите название статьи

The headline of the article is … (the article is headlined …, the headline of the article I've read is …)

2.  Определите автора статьи

The author of the article is … (The article is written by …)

3.  Определите источник публикации

The article is taken from the newspaper … (The article is published in the newspaper …, number …, on the …)

4.  Определите основную идею статьи

The article is about … (the main idea of the article is …, the article is devoted to …, the purpose of the article is to give the reader some information on …)

5.  Дайте краткое содержание статьи (10 – 15 предложений)

·  The author starts by telling the reader that …

·  The author stresses …

·  It is reported that …

·  It is found out that …

·  It is assumed that …

·  It is pointed that …

·  It is claimed that …

·  Particular emphasis is placed on the fact, that …

·  The article discusses…

·  The article considers…

·  The article analyzes…

·  The article reports on …

·  Further the author reports that …

·  According to the text, …

·  Much (little) attention is given to the fact, that …

·  A careful account is given to …

·  A detailed (brief) description is given to the fact, that …

·  Of particular interest is, the fact, that …

·  The author cites … (the words of…, who says, that …)

6.  Обратите внимание на цифры, сравнительные данные. Отразите их в своем реферировании

·  A comparison of … with … is made

·  The results of … are presented

·  Data on … are discussed

7.  Определите выводы, к которым приходит автор в конце статьи

·  In conclusion the author wants to add that …

·  It is recognized that …

8.  Выразите свое мнение по обсуждаемой проблеме

·  The article is expressive/very emotional

·  The article contains very important facts

·  The article contains the most up-to-date information on …

·  The article is of (great) interest

·  The article is (highly) recommended to …

·  The information is of value

·  The article contains a lot of key (important) words (terms), such as …

Образцы реферирования газетных статей.

Article 1. Central bank raises interest rates

by Tom Washington 29/04/2011

Borrowers are to feel the pinch after the Central Bank raised interest rates in a bid to battle creeping inflation.

The central bank raised key rates by 0.25 per cent Friday, potentially jeopardising a weak economic recovery as it concentrates on battling inflation. The headline refinancing rate will be raised to 8.25 per cent, with other key rates moving up as well.

Although raising key rates was expected, the bank took the market by surprise as it also increased the base refinancing rate, below which investors will not borrow. This was against analyst expectations and it left reserve requirements on hold, Reuters reported.

“This decision was made due to a high level of inflationary expectations, exceeding inflation targets for this year,” the central bank said in a statement accompanying the decision, Dow Jones reported.

Yearly inflation stands at 9.6 per cent as of April 25, compared to 9.5 per cent in March, the central bank said.

“The central bank acknowledges the persistence of inflationary risks, and today’s move clearly shows determination to deal with it... Funnily, the central bank noted the high inflation expectations as one of [the] reasons behind the move even though just yesterday central bank vice president (Sergei) Shvetsov noted satisfaction with reduction in inflationary expectations,” Aurelija Augulyte of Nordea told Reuters.

Not only the bank’s management but many politicians, including Prime Minister Putin, see raising interest rates as a tool against inflation

“Taking into account comments made by the Central Bank Chairman in recent weeks, it is becoming clear that not only is inflation the greater priority but that a stronger ruble is one of the mechanisms that will be used to try and constrain inflation,” Chris Weafer, Uralsib chief strategist, wrote in a note to investors earlier this week.

1.  The article is headlined “Central bank raises interest rates”.

2.  The author of the article is Tom Washington.

3.  The article is published in the newspaper “The Moscow News”, on the 29th of April, two thousand eleven.

4.  The author starts by telling the reader that borrowers are to feel the pinch after the Central Bank raised interest rates in a bid to battle creeping inflation.

5.  It is reported that the central bank raised key rates by 0.25 per cent.

6.  It is pointed out that the headline refinancing rate will be raised to 8.25 per cent.

7.  Particular emphasis is placed on the fact, that although raising key rates was expected, the bank took the market by surprise.

8.  The results of yearly inflation are presented.

9.  Of particular interest is, the fact, that not only the bank’s management but many politicians, including Prime Minister Putin, see raising interest rates as a tool against inflation.

10.  In conclusion the author cites the words of Chris Weafer, Uralsib chief strategist, who says that “It is becoming clear that not only is inflation the greater priority but that a stronger ruble is one of the mechanisms that will be used to try and constrain inflation”.

11. The article contains very important facts.

12. The information is of value.

Article 2. Traffic solution could be up in the air

by Tom Washington 01/06/2011

Travelling above the streets could be just the ticket to ending Moscow’s transport woes.

A system of cable cars could flit along above street level, leaving the cars standing and the creaking metro system to trundle along, jam-packed, below ground.

The idea has caught on in a few places around the world. The system’s fans list speed, affordability and ecology among its virtues and plans are afoot to bring it to the Russian capital and Yekaterinburg.

Gennady Kustarev, member of the Russian Academy of Engineering and one of the developers of Kanatonoe Metro (the Cable metro) is full of enthusiasm.

“[Passengers] are guaranteed high speed and beautiful views from the windows, soaring above the bustle of the city is like a dream come true. And up there it is very quiet, the car silently glides over the ropes, you can sit, talk or listen to music,” he told Moskovsky Komsomolets.

“The problem with Russian cities is that they were built and planned without taking into account the fact that every family would own two or three cars,” Kustarev said.

No roads or tracks means no bridges and that makes cable cars easy to accommodate and quick to build.

Safety is another cable car advantage, maintains Kustarev. Although the cable cars are suspended 10-12 metres above ground there are only small ventilation holes and no windows to jump out of and no flammable materials anywhere near. “Look how many people fall on the rails in the metro each year,” he pointed out.

“The system is the cleanest out there. And this has already been proven, funicular railways have already existed for 150 years in the most extreme places, in mountains and glaciers. And chiefly, this form of transport will not interfere with existing ones,” Kustarev said.

1.  The article is headlined “Traffic solution could be up in the air”.

2.  The author of the article is Tom Washington.

3.  The article is published in the newspaper “The Moscow News”, on the 1st of June, two thousand eleven.

4.  The article is devoted to some transport problems in Moscow.

5.  The author starts by telling the reader that travelling above the streets could be just the ticket to ending Moscow’s transport woes.

6.  It is reported that a system of cable cars could flit along above street level.

7.  It is pointed out that the idea has caught on in a few places around the world.

8.  According to the text, passengers are guaranteed high speed and beautiful views from the windows.

9.  Much attention is given to the fact, that the problem with Russian cities is that they were built and planned without taking into account the fact that every family would own two or three cars.

10.  It is assumed that no roads or tracks means no bridges and that makes cable cars easy to accommodate and quick to build.

11.  Cable car advantages are presented at the end of the article.

12.  The article contains the most up-to-date information on transport vehicles.

13.  The information is of value.

Article 3. Visa free Russia by 2014?

by Alina Lobzina 01/06/2011

Visa free entry to Russia could arrive by 2014 – but possibly only for lovers of winter sports.

As Moscow and the EU move closer to scrapping the current complex visa requirements, the Sochi Winter Olympics could be made visa free as a goodwill gesture to ensure a successful competition beside the Black Sea.

The country has done it before, and it’s not impossible that these schemes “will be used again during the Sochi Olympics,” Dmitry Voronkov, director at the all-European collaboration department at the Russian Foreign Affairs Ministry, said.

And if the arrangement is made, visa-free travel will become available not only for EU citizens, but people from other countries, he told journalists.

An Olympic concession, however, would not be a stepping stone to a unilateral end to visas for visitors to Russia.

Just as in 2008, when tickets to the Champions league final allowed football fans (pictured above) to come to Moscow to see the game, no dramatic changes in visa regulation would follow a red-tape free Olympics.

“Talking about such unilateral steps as introducing visa-free relations with the EU from our side, I believe, wouldn’t be appropriate from the point of view of international practice,” Voronkov said at a press conference on Wednesday.

Long-term visas are the current target, but it’s not impossible that an entirely visa-free regime could arrive in future – and by the time of Sochi or the World Cup it might be clearer when that goal can be achieved.

Sergei Lavrov, Russian Foreign Affairs Minister, said recently that Russia’s visa requirements could be scrapped “as soon as the European Comission is ready”.

But that would prompt Russia to revise its registration procedures and introduce new biometric passports, as well as adopting protocols on readmission, RIA Novosti reported.

1.  The article is headlined “Visa free Russia by 2014?”.

2.  The author of the article is Alina Lobzina.

3.  The article is published in the newspaper “The Moscow News”, on the 1st of June, two thousand eleven.

4.  The purpose of the article is to give the reader some information on visa free entry to Russia for the Sochi Winter Olympies.

5.  The author starts by telling the reader that as Moscow and the EU move closer to scrapping the current complex visa requirements, the Sochi Winter Olympics could be made visa free as a goodwill gesture to ensure a successful competition beside the Black Sea.

6.  It is pointed out that visa-free travel will become available not only for EU citizens, but people from other countries.

7.  Particular emphasis is placed on the fact, that an Olympic concession, however, would not be a stepping stone to a unilateral end to visas for visitors to Russia.

8.  It is assumed that long-term visas are the current target, but it’s not impossible that an entirely visa-free regime could arrive in future.

9.  In conclusion the author cites the words of Sergei Lavrov, Russian Foreign Affairs Minister, who said that Russia’s visa requirements could be scrapped “as soon as the European Comission is ready”.

10. The article is of interest.

11. The information is of value.

Блок 3

Беседа по изученным устным темам

-The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

-The system of higher education in Great Britain.

-University or institute you have graduated from.

-The sphere of my scientific interests.

Устные темы по английскому языку.

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

The full and official name of the country is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It is situated on the group of islands lying just off the mainland of the north-western Europe. The total area оf the country is over 244,000 square kilometres.

The British Isles include Great Britain proper, Ireland and a number of smaller islands. Great Britain consists of England, Scotland and Wales. The population of the UK is 57 million people. The largest and the most populated part of the UK is England. Its population is over 47 million people and its capital is London.

The UK is a highly developed industrial country. It is the world largest producer of marine navigational equipment as the main industrial branch of the country is shipbuilding. The UK enterprises are also widely-known for textile, television and radio sets production.

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a parliamentary republic. It means that the head of the state is the monarch but his powers are restricted by the elected government and the parliament. So that the monarch reigns but does not rule. For the last 50 years Queen Elizabeth II has been the monarch of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

The parliament consists of two chambers: House of Lords and House of Commons. House of Lords includes those members who are given a privilege to be referred to as peers and consider being a nobility of the country. House of Commons is an elected legislative body consisting of members of the different political parties. The main function of the parliament is to issue the bills, laws and regulations. They are obligatory for every citizen of the UK.

The Prime-minister of the country is elected in a 4- year-cycle by the total elections. The political party taken the most part of votes becomes the ruling party and its leader becomes a Prime-minister of the country. The ruling party nowadays is the Labour party. The Prime-minister is David Cameron.

London is the capital of the United Kingdom and the constituent country of England, and is the largest city in the European Union.

Traditionally London is divided into four parts: the City, Westminster, the West End and the East End.

The City of London is the world's greatest financial centre alongside New York City and Tokyo and one of the most important cultural centers. London's influence in politics, education, entertainment, media, fashion and the arts contributes to its preeminent position. The City of London is the headquarters of more than half of the UK's top 100 listed companies including the Bank of England and the Stock Exchange. There are a lot of tourists’ attractions within the City. Among them St. Paul’s Cathedral, the greatest of English churches and the Tower of London.

St Paul's Cathedral is the Anglican cathedral and the seat of the Bishop of London. The present building dates from the 17th century. Sir Christopher Wren was an architect of the masterpiece. The cathedral is one of London's most visited sights.

Another place of interest is the Tower of London. It was built in 1066 by William the Conqueror and since than has been playing an important role in historical and governmental events of the United Kingdom.

Westminster is the governmental part of London. It has many historical places and the brightest of them is the Westminster Abbey. It is a large, mainly Gothic church in Westminster, London, just to the west of the Palace of Westminster. It is also famous for its Poet’s Corner, place where a lot of outstanding poets, writers, politicians are buried.

Buckingham Palace is the official residence of the Royal family. It is famous for the ceremony of the Royal Guard change. It attracts thousands of tourists.

London currently has a wide range of peoples, cultures, and religions, and more than 300 languages are spoken within the city. The official population of the city is more than 8 mln. within the boundaries of Greater London making it the most populous municipality in the European Union.

Вопросы к теме:

Why is Great Britain considered to be an island state?

Why is the climate in Great Britain mild the whole year round?

What party is the ruling party nowadays?

What are the chief industries in Great Britain?

Who is Great Britain ruled by? Who is the real Head of the country?

The system of higher education in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

The structure of higher education in Great Britain is very complex. The main sources of higher educational institutions are: universities (including the Open University1), teacher-training colleges and polytechnics. British universities come in all ages, sizes and shapes.

The oldest of them, Oxford and Cambridge, founded in the 12-th and 13-th centuries took the students from all over the country.

The younger civic or “Redbrick” universities serving the needs of their cities were organized in the 19-th century. The newest “Whitebrick” universities came into existence during the 1960s. Admission to universities is by examination or selection in the for of interviews.

Applications from candidates for admission to nearly all universities are submitted to the Universities and Colleges Admission Service (UCAS). It is the UCAS that sends the copies to different universities and each university selects its own students.

British universities are independent, self-governing institutions. Although they all receive financial support from the state (about 79 per cent), the Department of Education and Science has no control over their regulations, curriculum, examinations and the way in which the money is spent.

Teacher education includes all forms of education provided mostly by teacher-training colleges which receive their grants directly from the Department of Education and Science. The great majority of colleges are maintained by the Local Education Authorities. The most usual route to a teaching qualification is by way of three or four year course, leading to the Bachelor of Education Degree.

The universities and teacher-training colleges are classed as higher educational institutions because they award degrees. The normal duration of a first degree course is three of four years. At the end a Bachelor Degree is awarded on the results of examinations. A Master Degree is usually awarded after a further year or two years of studies.

The highest degree is the Doctor of Philosophy. It is awarded for research and submission of a thesis-normally after Bachelor and Master Degrees.

Apart from the Universities and teacher-training colleges there are 30 polytechnics in England and Wales and 14 Scottish central institutions. The work of the Polytechnics is of university level. But the universities, funded directly by the state, are less controlled than the Polytechnics.

Local Education Authorities are responsible for the budgets of the Polytechnics. Their work is planned and financed by the Polytechnics and Colleges Funding Council.

Most degrees in Polytechnics are awarded by a national body called the Council for National Academic Awards. The Council ensures that the degrees awarded in polytechnics are equal to the degrees awarded by universities. Polytechnics award the Diploma in Technology.

The usual course for the diploma is 3 years for full-time students and 4 years for “sandwich” course ones. The “sandwich” course students alternate periods of full-time education and full - time employment. These courses provide many people with the opportunity of receiving higher technical education.

Вопросы к теме:

Why are British universities independent and self-governing institutions?

What are the main traditions of British higher education?

Why are universities and teacher training colleges classed as higher educational institutions?

Are there any differences in awarding degrees in our country and in Great Britain? What are they?

What is a “sandwich” course in British higher education?

University or institute you have graduated from

Rostov State University of Civil Engineering

Rostov State University of Civil Engineering is the largest University in the south of Russia with the dynamic development. It is a leading institution of national higher education and it is considered to be the center of education, science, culture and sport in Russia. It was established as Civil Engineering Institute in 1944 and in 1997 it got the status of a University.

Rostov State University of Civil Engineering is dynamic at present. Nowadays it has 6 institutes, 3 faculties, a lyceum, a preparatory center, a center of scientific and technical construction examination, a certification center, two scientific research institutes: “Dortrans Scientific research Institute” and “Scientific research Institute of territorial management and city planning» and other departments.

At present Rostov State University of Civil Engineering is the center of modern and highly qualified vocational higher education. More than 10,000 students get training here. They get qualifications in 33 special subjects, 17 programmes for masters in the fields of «Building», «Economics», «Transport systems», «Environmental protection» and others.

Modern technically equipped classrooms, computer and training laboratories provided with up-to-date facilities and software are available to students.

The University provides access to new learning opportunities, scientific research and creative work. Students and young scientists participate in a number of degree project competitions, subject competitions and All-Russian and regional conferences.

The modern university institutes provide opportunities to ensure high quality training and research. The University has 14 buildings, 13 research departments and a library of 800,000 volumes, 5 reading rooms, an IT centre and 40 computer rooms.

Non-resident students live in three comfortable hostels. Students improve their health at the University Sanatorium and the Health Center.

The Academic body of the University has always been interested in extension of scientific and technical cooperation with other leading higher educational institutions and business companies in Germany, Great Britain, France, Spain, Mexico, China, India, Finland and Austria. Most of them belong to the International Corporate Technical University established in Rostov State University of Civil Engineering.

Foreign scientists and researchers give lectures to the students of the University. They also take an active part in different joint educational projects.

The University has gained the reputation for patriotic, cultural and intellectual development of students. The University is famous for being not only the educational and scientific center, but also the cultural center which offers a wide range of spare time activities for students.

The slogan of the University «Glorious in the Past, dynamic at Present and aimed at the Future» reflects the higher education philosophy with the combination of traditions, innovations, experience and creative research in its concept.

Вопросы к теме:

When did our University get its status of a University?

What institute of our University did you graduate from?

How do you understand the slogan of our University?

What are the fundamental subjects of the first-year study?

Did you take part in the student’s life of our University? How?

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Simple to complex: a molecular perspective

Modern synthetic chemistry has reached the point where it is possible to prepare small molecules to almost any structure. These methods are used today to manufacture a wide variety of useful chemicals such as pharmaceuticals or commercial polymers. This ability raises the question of extending this kind of control to the next-larger level, seeking methods to assemble these single molecules into supramolecular assemblies consisting of many molecules arranged in a well defined manner.

These approaches utilize the concepts of molecular self-assembly and/or supramolecular chemistry to automatically arrange themselves into some useful conformation through a bottom-up approach. The concept of molecular recognition is especially important: molecules can be designed so that a specific configuration or arrangement is favored due to non-covalent intermolecular forces. The Watson–Crick basepairing rules are a direct result of this, as is the specificity of an enzyme being targeted to a single substrate, or the specific folding of the protein itself. Thus, two or more components can be designed to be complementary and mutually attractive so that they make a more complex and useful whole.

Such bottom-up approaches should be capable of producing devices in parallel and be much cheaper than top-down methods, but could potentially be overwhelmed as the size and complexity of the desired assembly increases. Most useful structures require complex and thermodynamically unlikely arrangements of atoms. Nevertheless, there are many examples of self-assembly based on molecular recognition in biology, most notably Watson–Crick basepairing and enzyme-substrate interactions. The challenge for nanotechnology is whether these principles can be used to engineer new constructs in addition to natural ones.

From the history of electricity

Long before any knowledge of electricity existed people were aware of shocks from electric fish. Ancient Egyptian texts dating from 2750 BC referred to these fish as the "Thunderer of the Nile", and described them as the "protectors" of all other fish. Electric fish were again reported millennia later by ancient Greek, Roman and Arabic naturalists and physicians. Several ancient writers, such as Pliny the Elder and Scribonius Largus, attested to the numbing effect of electric shocks delivered by catfish and torpedo rays, and knew that such shocks could travel along conducting objects. Patients suffering from ailments such as gout or headache were directed to touch electric fish in the hope that the powerful jolt might cure them. Possibly the earliest and nearest approach to the discovery of the identity of lightning, and electricity from any other source, is to be attributed to the Arabs, who before the 15th century had the Arabic word for lightning (raad) applied to the electric ray.

Electricity would remain little more than an intellectual curiosity for millennia until 1600, when the English scientist William Gilbert made a careful study of electricity and magnetism, distinguishing the lodestone effect from static electricity produced by rubbing amber. He coined the New Latin word electricus ("of amber" or "like amber", from ήλεκτρον [elektron], the Greek word for "amber") to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed. This association gave rise to the English words "electric" and "electricity", which made their first appearance in print in Thomas Browne's Pseudodoxia Epidemica of 1646.

Water pressure

Water pressures vary in different locations of a distribution system. Water mains below the street may operate at higher pressures, with a pressure reducer located at each point where the water enters a building or a house. In poorly managed systems, water pressure can be so low as to result only in a trickle of water or so high that it leads to damage to plumbing fixtures and waste of water. Pressure in an urban water system is typically maintained either by a pressurized water tank serving an urban area, by pumping the water up into a tower and relying on gravity to maintain a constant pressure in the system or solely by pumps at the water treatment plant and repeater pumping stations.

Typical UK pressures are 4-5 bar for an urban supply. However, some people can get over eight bars or below one bar. A single iron main pipe may cross a deep valley, it will have the same nominal pressure, however each consumer will get a bit more or less because of the hydrostatic pressure (about 1 bar/10m height). So people at the bottom of a 100-foot (30 m) hill will get about 3 bars more than those at the top.

The effective pressure also varies because of the supply resistance even for the same static pressure. An urban consumer may have 5 metres of ½" lead pipe running from the iron main, so the kitchen tap flow will be fairly unrestricted, so high flow. A rural consumer may have a kilometre of rusted and limed ¾" iron pipe so their kitchen tap flow will be small.

For this reason the UK domestic water system has traditionally (prior to 1989) employed a "cistern feed" system, where the incoming supply is connected to the kitchen sink and also a header/storage tank in the attic. Water can dribble into this tank through a ½" lead pipe, plus ball valve, and then supply the house on 22 or 28 mm pipes. Gravity water has a small pressure (say ¼ bar in the bathroom) but needs wide pipes allow higher flows. This is fine for baths and toilets but is frequently inadequate for showers. People install shower booster pumps to increase the pressure. For this reason urban houses are increasingly using mains pressure boilers (combies) which take a long time to fill a bath but suit the high back pressure of a shower.

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Tchaikovsky's prize-giving tease

by Andy Potts on 01/07/2011

The Moscow News

The winner of the Grand Prix at the Tchaikovsky International Competition remains a secret for a while longer – but most of the other prizes have been announced.

After a gala performance in Moscow a delayed award ceremony handed out medals in the instrumental and vocal classes, but kept a packed house on tenterhooks waiting for news of the biggest prize.

Culture minister Alexander Avdeyev delighted in teasing the music lovers who thronged the Great Hall of the Moscow Conservatory, telling them: “We know the names of all the winners, but today we do not reveal all the secrets.

“The Grand Prix will be announced [on Sunday] after the concert in St. Petersburg.”

The crowd roared its disapproval, RIA Novosti reported.

No violin prize

The organizers had promised to award gold medals in all categories – previous years had prompted scandals when the top prizes were withdrawn – but that did not happen as planned.

There was no gold for the violinists, where Sergei Dogadin of Russia and Israel’s Itamar Zormarom shared silver.

And the cello contest, which was won by Narek Nakhnazaryan, also raised eyebrows.

Earlier in the competition there were claims that conductor Mark Gorenstein had racially abused the Armenian youngster during a rehearsal.

Gorenstein later apologized and Nakhnazaryan went on to take the audience prize as well as the jury’s awards.

Daniel Trifonov ensured a home win in the piano section, and added the audience award, while Koreans Park and Sun Jung Seo took the top awards in the vocal section.

Russian innovation is running out of puff

by Alina Lobzina on 12/05/2011

The Moscow News

If you’re looking for innovation in Russia, it’s more likely to be lighting up a cigarette than blazing a trail into space, according to the Higher School of Economics.

Tobacco companies have become the nation’s leaders in new technology, leaving telecoms and oil refining choking on their smoke.

Ironically, President Medvedev’s innovation-hungry government is also intent on stubbing out cigarette sales.

But they will need to find a new way to spark the country’s boffins into life in other fields, with research showing that less than 10 per cent of Russian firms are “innovatively active”.

Elsewhere, smaller economies in Eastern Europe score 20-40 per cent on the same scale.

Global concept, local gains

Four in ten tobacco companies apply new technologies to their everyday work, thanks mostly to their links to multinational corporations.

And that investment comes despite constant restrictions on advertising tobacco, plans to raise duty on cigarettes and proposed legislation to enforce more no-smoking zones in Russia.

Anatoly Vereschagin, the head of communications at JTI, told Vedomosti the company invested nearly $380 million dollars over the last three years to modernise the production process.

Making connections

Telecoms manufacturers come second in Russia’s list of innovators, with just over a third of companies introducing new ideas.

And aerospace, a source of national pride in Soviet times, comes third with 33.6 per cent, followed by oil refining on 32.7 per cent.

But that’s well behind other economies, where innovative technologies run close to 70 per cent.

Germany tops the charts ahead of Canada and New Zealand, while neighbours Finland (55.4 per cent) and Estonia (55.1 per cent) also score highly.

Russian mortgage rates falling

by Andy Potts on 29/06/2011

The Moscow News

Mortgages in Moscow are getting cheaper – but falling interest rates will not solve the market’s problems on their own.

The HMLA, the agency which deals with mortgage rates, has announced plans to cut costs for borrowers by up to 2.6 per cent, bringing the lowest lending rates down to 8.9 per cent.

It hopes to see 15-20 per cent more people take out ruble-denominated loans to buy property by reducing the level of repayments and requiring smaller up-front deposits.

More work needed

While experts agree that action is needed to tackle high interest rates – in Western markets loans are often half the price of the Russian counterparts – this is not the only issue.

Alla Moroz, director of the real estate sales department at housebuilder Etalon Invest, told The Moscow News that “inflated interest rates” were the main issue, but added that banks needed to do more to promote home loans.

“For a long time after the crisic Russian banks opted against mortgages on new buildings, and when they returned to the market they demanded existing real estate as collateral,” she said. “In addition many banks required extra guarantees which did not encourage the mass spread of mortgages.”

She also called for Russian banks to learn from the example of their Western peers and adopt a more understanding approach to debt restructuring.

“For example, if the borrower suffers reduced circumstances but had always made payments in good faith, the bank can renegotiate the contract to keep the customer solvent.”

More transparency in the system could help with this, she believes, welcoming the small steps which are being made towards sharing information about applicants’ long-term credit history.

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The sphere of my scientific interest.

I graduated from (указать название университета или института) in (указать год окончания).

Being a third-year student, I got interested in the problem of …

I studied the literature on the problem, made different experiments and came to the conclusion that it is a very important and urgent problem nowadays.

The theme of my graduation paper is …

In my graduation paper I do research in the field of … (указать область исследования)

It is a comparatively new branch of science that studies (что изучает новая отрасль науки) …

Major developments include advances in (указать область науки) …

The branches of science contributing a lot to progress in my field of science are (смежные науки) …

At present I study the problem of (проблема в настоящее время) …

My scientific supervisor is professor …

In solving our problem we follow the hypothesis that …

Over the past few years the interest in the problem has been due to the fact that (чем обусловлен интерес к проблеме) …

(Имя ученого) was the first to underline / define / the problem.

There is a lot of literature on the problem of my research but it is out of date.

But I want to add that many aspects of the problem still remain unsolved…

My task is : a) to define …

b) to prove …

c) to analyze …

At present my research is concentrated on …

And now I want to take a post-graduate course to continue my research work.

Вопросы к теме:

What is the field of your research?

What are your reasons for talking a post-graduate course?

Can you name outstanding researchers in your field of science?

Do achievements in your branch of research influence everyday life? In what way?

Have you ever participated in international conferences? What are the results?

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