Word list
tape | мерная лента |
EDM (electronic distance measurement) | электронное оборудование |
frequency | частота |
ultrahigh ~ | УВЧ (ультравысокая частота) |
radiation | излучение |
foliage | листва |
transmitter | передатчик |
retransmitter | ретранслятор |
receiver | приёмник |
mirror | зеркало |
target | цель, мишень, визирная марка |
range finder | дальномер |
coincidence ~ | дальномер с совмещением контуров изображения |
stereoscopic ~ | стереоскопический дальномер |
to view | рассматривать |
arrangement of lenses | расположение линз |
vice versa | наоборот |
land - gunnery ranging | наземная артиллерийская пристрелка |
parallax | параллакс; видимое изменение положения предмета вследствие перемещения глаза наблюдателя |
radar | радар |
rough terrain | пересечённая местность |
remote | удалённый |
range | расстояние, длина; диапазон; определять расстояние до цели; располагать |
I Pronounce correctly:
radar, radiation; receiver; simple, simplify, simplified; alternative; coincidence; target; device; ultrahigh; infrared.
II Find English equivalents of the following:
плоская поверхность; холмистая местность; расстояние, которое необходимо измерить; радиоволны ультравысокой частоты; дойти до цели и вернуться обратно; чем меньше угол, тем больше расстояние; принцип действия; почти такой же; движущийся объект; пересечённая местность; чистая линия визирования.
III Say whether these statements are true or false:
1. Measuring with a tape is impractical over large and hilly areas.
2. For EDM only light radiation is used.
3. The basic types of range finders are coincidence and stereoscopic ones.
4. Radar has supplanted optical range finders for most military operations.
5. Laser range finder employs radio pulses.
IV Answer the questions:
1. How are small distances usually measured?
2. Why is it sometimes impractical to use the tape?
3. What are the advantages of using EDM?
4. What kind of radiation is used in EDM devices?
5. What procedure of framework establishing was simplified due to EDM?
6. What kinds of range finders do you know?
7. What is the difference between coincidence and stereoscopic range finders?
8. How does the laser range finder operate?
V Translate into English:
1. Небольшое расстояние можно измерить с помощью мерной ленты.
2. При измерении больших расстояний или пересечённой местности исполь-зуются электронные приборы.
3. Расстояние определяется по времени, затраченному на прохождение волны до нужной точки.
4. Использование электронных приборов значительно облегчило процесс создания геодезической сети опорных точек.
5. Принцип действия стереоскопического дальномера почти такой же, как у дальномера с совмещением контуров, но у него два окуляра.
6. Лазерный дальномер, как и радар, измеряет расстояние по времени между передачей и приёмом электромагнитных волн.
7. Лазерный дальномер особенно удобен при съёмке пересечённой местности.
VI Translate into Russian:
Geophysics
Geophysics is a major branch of the Earth sciences that applies the principles and methods of physics to the study of the Earth.
Geophysics deals with a wide array of geologic phenomena, including the temperature distribution of the earth’s interior; the source, configurations and variations of the geomagnetic field; and the large-scale features of the terrestrial crust, such as rifts and mid-oceanic ridges. Modern geophysical research extends to phenomena of the outer parts of the Earth’s atmosphere and even to the physical properties of other planets and their satellites.
UNIT 8
TYPES OF SURVEY
The actual depiction of the features to be shown on the map can be performed either on the ground or, since the invention of photography, aviation and rocketry, by interpretation of aerial photographs and satellite images.
On the ground the framework is dissected into even smaller areas as the surveyor moves from one point to another, fixing other points on the features from each position by combinations of angle and distance measurement and finally sketching the features between them freehand. In complicated terrain this operation can be slow and inaccurate, as can be seen by comparing maps made on the ground with those made subsequently from aerial photographs.
Ground survey still has to be used, however, for some purposes; for example, in areas where aerial photographs are hard to get: under the canopy of forest, where the shape of the ground – not that of the treetops – is required; in very large scale work or close contouring; or if the features to be mapped are not easily identifiable on the aerial photographs, as is the case with property boundaries or zones of transition between different types of soil or vegetation.
One of the two fundamental differences between ground and air survey is that the ground survey interpolates, or sketches, between fixed points, while air survey, using semiautomatic instruments, can trace the features continuously, once the positions of the photographs are known. One effect of this is to show features in uniform detail rather than along short stretches between the points fixed in a ground survey.
The second difference is that in ground survey, different techniques and accuracies may be adopted for the horizontal and vertical measurements, the latter usually being more precise. Accurate determinations of heights are required for engineering and planning maps, for example, for railway gradients or particularly for irrigation or drainage networks.
Aerial survey. Aviation and photography have revolutionized detailed mapping of features visible from the air. An aerial photograph, however, is not a map. The distortions in photographs are always present. As in ground survey, a framework of identified points is necessary before detailed mapping can be carried out from the air. The photographs are ordinarily taken by vertically aligned camera in a series of strips in which each picture overlaps about 60 percent of the preceding one. The overlaps make it possible to assemble a low-order framework or control system based on small, recognizable features that appear in more than one photograph.
Hydrographic surveying. Surveying of water-covered areas or hydrographic surveying determines the horizontal coordinates of points on the surface of the body of water (position fixing) and determines the water’s depth at those points.
Position fixing requires that measurements be made both on land and on water. The shape of the coastline is determined with aerial photographs. For making large-scale maps of shallow waters, depths are still plumbed by sounding poles. In water deeper than 12 feet (3.7m), the hydrographer determines depth by echo sounders, which send out pulses of sound or radio waves and detect the time delay of echoes returned from the bottom. For studying the seabed in detail today, the television cameras can be lowered to transmit pictures back to the survey ship.
Word list
depict | рисовать, изображать, |
depiction | описание, изображение |
dissect | рассекать, расчленять |
time delay | время задержки (запаздывания) |
interpretation of aerial photographs | дешифрирование аэроснимков |
image | изображение |
satellite ~ | изображение, полученное с помощью спутника |
sketch | эскиз, схема, общий план |
terrain | территория, местность |
identifiable | легко опознаваемый |
contouring | вычерчивание; нанесение горизонталей; оконтуривание |
trace | набрасывать план; чертить; следить; выслеживать |
under the canopy of forest | под покровом леса |
interpolate | интерполировать; вставлять, вводить |
low order framework | сеть триангуляции низкого класса |
position fixing | определение положения |
plumb | устанавливать вертикально |
sounding pole | шест для промера глубины |
echo sounder | эхолот |
align | направлять, визировать |
overlap | перекрытие стереопары аэроснимков; перекрывать |
distortion | искажение |
body of water | водное пространство; акватория |
irrigation network | ирригационная сеть |
drainage network | система осушения |
I Pronounce correctly:
actual; feature; photography; aerial; interpretation; identifiable; technique; hydrography; sound, sounding, echo sounding; automatic, semiautomatic; interpolate.
II Find English equivalents of the following:
дешифрирование; изображение, полученное со спутника; крупномасштабная работа; различные типы почв; элементы рельефа, видимые с воздуха; составление подробной карты; определять глубину воды; радиоволна; делать измерения на земле и на воде; рисовать от руки.
III Say whether the statements are true or false:
1. The relief to be shown on the map can be determined only by ground surveys.
2. Ground surveys are never used nowadays.
3. There are always distortions on the photographs.
4. Hydrographic survey requires that measurements be taken only on water.
5. The TV cameras are used for studying seabed.
IV Answer the questions:
1. How can the depiction of the features for mapping be performed?
2. For what purposes is ground survey used?
3. What is the difference between ground an air surveys?
4. What is necessary for detailed mapping from the air?
5. How are photographs taken in aerial survey?
6. What is hydrographic survey?
7. How is the seabed studied?
V Translate into English:
1. Особенности рельефа можно получить с помощью наземной съёмки или
с помощью аэроснимков и снимков со спутников.
2. Если особенности местности не позволяют сделать аэроснимок, исполь-зуется наземная съёмка.
3. Как при наземной, так и при аэросъёмке необходимо, прежде всего, создать сеть опорных точек на земле.
4. Гидрографическая съёмка определяет координаты точек на поверхности воды и глубину воды в этих точках.
5. Глубину воды определяют с помощью эхолотов.
VI Translate into Russian:
Hydrography
Surveying of underwater features, or hydrographic surveying, formerly required techniques very different from ground surveying, for two reasons: the surveyor ordinarily was moving instead of stationary, and the surface being mapped could not be seen.
The only way a hydrographer could chart the seabed before underwater echo sounding and television became available was to cast overboard at intervals a sounding line with a lead weight at the end and measure the length of the line paid out when the weight hit the bottom.
The introduction of echo sounding in the early 20th century marked a great improvement. It was made possible by the invention of electronic devices for the measurement of short intervals of time.
UNIT 9
MAP
A map is a graphic representation drawn to scale and usually on a flat surface, of features – usually geographical, geological, or geopolitical – of an area of the Earth or of any other celestial body. Globes are maps represented on the surface of a sphere. The art and science of making maps and charts is called cartography.
Major types of maps include topographical maps, showing features of the Earth’s land surface, nautical charts, representing coastal and marine areas; hydrographic charts, which specify ocean depths and the directions and intensities of oceanic currents; and aeronautical charts, which detail surface features and air routes.
Maps may be classified according to their scale, content, or derivation. Map scale refers to the size of the representation on the map as compared to the size of the object on the ground – and thus the level of detail shown. For maps it is usually convenient to express the scale by a representative fraction or ratio: for example, the ratio 1:63,360 means one inch on the map represents 63,360 inches (one mile) on the ground. In general, a large-scale map is one on which one inch represents a mile or less; on a small-scale map the ratio may be 1:1,000,000 (one inch to about 15 miles); and medium scale denotes intermediate range.
A map’s content is chosen to suit its primary purpose: thus the terms aeronautical chart, topographic map, road map, and weather map are self-descriptive. Maps may be derived or compiled from other maps, usually of larger scale; alternatively, they may be assembled from original surveys and photogrammetric mon road maps, for example, are compiled from road surveying, topographic maps, and aerial photographs.
Measurements for the map may be derived from a number of sources. Geodetic maps designed to depict large areas may rely in part on triangulation from satellites in orbit. Many mapping projects depend on numerous stereoscopic pairs of aerial photographs for accurate representation of the vertical relief of the terrain as well as much of the planimetric detail. Specialized detail maps may also rely on observations made by surveyors on the ground. Geological maps may incorporate information provided by infrared imagery or thematic mapping instruments aboard Earth-observation satellites.
Once information is obtained, it must be accurately transferred to paper. For large-scale maps of small areas, that process is usually straightforward, but an accurate map of an area even a few tens of miles across must take into account the curvature of the Earth’s surface.
Word list
representation | изображение, представление |
celestial body | небесное тело |
marine | морской |
coast | побережье |
chart | карта |
nautical ~ | навигационная карта |
aeronautical ~ | аэронавигационная карта |
hydrographical ~ | гидрографическая карта |
specialized detail ~ | подробная карта специального назначения |
thematic ~ | тематическая карта |
scale | масштаб |
content | содержание |
derivation | происхождение, источник |
planimetric detail | плановая нагрузка карты; элементы контуров |
photogrammetric compilation | составление карты по аэроснимкам; составление фотомонтажа |
I Pronounce correctly:
representation; celestial; surface; marine; nautical; hydrographical; ratio; imagery; transfer; route; ocean, oceanic, oceanography; map, mapping, mapped, unmapped.
II Find English equivalents of the following:
графическое изображение; плоская поверхность; крупномасштабная карта; мелкомасштабная карта; точное изображение; переносить на бумагу; искусство создания карт; по сравнению с …; главная цель.
III Fill in the gaps:
1. … is the art of making maps.
2. If 1 inch on the map represents a mile or less, it is a … map.
3. An accurate map must take into account the … of the Earth.
4. Maps represented on the surface of a sphere are called … .
5. … maps show features of the Earth’s surface.
IV Answer the questions:
1. What is a map?
2. What is a globe?
3. What are the major types of maps?
4. How are maps classed according to their scale?
5. What does the map’s content imply?
6. What are the sources of measurements for maps?
V Translate into English:
1. Карта – это графическое изображение на плоской поверхности, произве-денное в масштабе.
2. Карты можно классифицировать по масштабу, содержанию и источнику их составления.
3. Содержание карты соответствует её основному назначению.
4. Специальные подробные карты составляются на основании измерений, произведенных геодезистами.
5. Полученную информацию необходимо перенести на бумагу.
6. При изображении сферической поверхности Земли на плоской поверх-ности искажения неизбежны.
UNIT 10
COMPONENTS OF MAPS
Despite their variety, all maps have similar components. These include a title; a legend or key; a direction indicator; and a scale.
The title of a map identifies what the map is about and what parts of the earth it shows. The title of some maps includes a date. Dates are useful on maps showing features that change over time. A map with the title “Distribution of Population in France: 1920”, for example, should not be used when looking for figures on the present population of France.
A legend or key explains the meaning of colours and symbols used on a map. A map with areas shown in green, red and blue might be misunderstood unless the user knows what the green, red and blue represent (blue for hydrography, green for vegetation, red for man-made features and brown – for relief). The legend also explains the meaning of symbols used on a map, such as stars for capital cities.
Every map should have a direction indicator. One such indicator is an arrow that points north. A different way to find directions on a map is to study the parallels and meridians. East and west directions follow parallels, or lines of latitude. North and south directions follow meridians, or lines of longitude. Parallels and meridians cross each other to form an imaginary grid over the earth. Because each degree can be broken into 60 minutes (`) and each minute into 60 seconds (``), this grid can be used to fix the precise location of any point on the earth’ surface.
The most important longitude is called the Greenwich Meridian, because it passes through a place called Greenwich in London where there is a a famous observatory. The longitude of Greenwich meridian is 0 degrees. At Greenwich local time is called Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). All places on the same meridian have the same local time. When it is noon at a given meridian, it is after noon or post meridiem (p. m.) at places which lie to the east of it. This is because the earth rotates from west to east. At the same time the sun will be before noon or ante meridiem (a. m.) at places lying to the west.
Maps scales and projections. A map scale provides statistical information used to measure distances on a map. While maps have similar components, they do not always show areas of the world in exactly the same way. The size and shape of North America, for example, may look somewhat different on two different maps. The differences occur because the two maps use different map projections, or methods by which the features of the earth’s curved surface are transferred onto a flat map.
A great variety of map projections has been devised to provide for the various properties that may be desired in maps. A projection is a systematic method of drawing the Earth’s meridians and parallels on a flat surface. Most types of projection can be grouped according to their geometric derivation as cylindrical, conic or azimuthal.
No matter which projection is used, every map has some distortions that are inevitable in the process of illustrating the earth’s spherical surface on a flat map.
Word list
title | название карты |
legend (key) | легенда карты; пояснения за рамкой карты; таблица |
~ of symbols | таблица условных знаков |
grid | сетка (координат) |
observatory | обсерватория |
map projection | картографическая проекция |
cylindrical ~ | цилиндрическая проекция |
conical ~ | коническая проекция |
azimuthal ~ | азимутальная проекция |
Mercator ~ | прямая равноугольная цилиндрическая проекция Меркатора |
population | население |
devise | разрабатывать |
distortion | искажение |
I Pronounce correctly:
observatory; component; legend; identify; longitude; meridian; imaginary; projection; transfer; through, throughout; though, although.
II Find English equivalents of the following:
изменяться со временем; плоская поверхность; столичные города; точное местоположение; переносить на бумагу; на поверхности Земли; условное обозначение; местное время; сферическая поверхность; таким же образом; искажения неизбежны.
III Fill in the gaps with the proper words:
1. The … of the map identifies what the map is about.
2. … colour on a map represents vegetation.
3. The most important longitude is called the …. Meridian.
4. … is a systematic method of drawing meridians and parallels on a flat surface.
5. The components similar for all the maps are title, direction indicator and … .
IV Answer the questions:
1. What similar components do all the maps include?
2. What does the title of a map identify?
3. What does the legend explain?
4. What information does the map scale provide?
5. Where is the most important longitude situated?
6. What is GMT?
V Translate into English:
1. Любая карта имеет название, масштаб и легенду.
2. По названию карты понятно, какую часть Земли она изображает.
3. Легенда карты объясняет значения условных знаков.
4. По сетке координат можно определить точное местоположение любой точки на поверхности Земли.
5. Долгота Гринвичского меридиана – 0 градусов.
6. Масштаб дает статистическую информацию для определения расстояния по карте.
VI Translate into Russian:
The puzzle of geographic names
One of the most puzzling problems in cartography is the selection of the correct spelling of place names. This problem involves language, changes in government and changes in national policy.
In general, cartographers print names in their own language, even though the inhabitants of the region call the place by a different name. For example, on an American-made map of Europe you will probably see a label for the Danube River. The same river would be labeled Donau on a German map, Duna on a Hungarian map, and Duna-rea on a Romanian map. On the same American-made map you would see labels for Finland and Hungary, even though the people of these nations call their countries Suomi and Magyarorszag.
UNIT 11
HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY
The oldest known maps were drawn by Babylonians on clay tablets, dating to about 2300 BC. Nearly as old as these are certain Egyptian drawings and paintings discovered in early tombs. Cartography as a science was established by Greeks. The Ionian geographers of the 5th and 6th centuries BC drew the Earth in the form of a disk floating in the ocean. Soon arose the idea of a spherical Earth, and it was a well established fact in the time of Aristotle. About 150 BC the problem of the determination of positions on the Earth led to the development of the stereographic projection, a long step forward in cartography. The Greek mathematician and astronomer Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy; AD 90 – 168) had a great influence on geography and cartography, his monumental eight-volume work, the Guide to Geography was an authoritative reference for almost 1,000 years.
Roman cartography did not continue the scientific attitude of the Greeks. They returned to the disklike Earth theory of the early centuries. Greek and the Romans Orbis Terrarium became the standard map of the world for 13 centuries. It had east on the top.
Little progress was made in cartography until the age of exploration and commerce. Exploration encouraged the development of navigation, ship design and construction, instruments for astronomical and land observation, and general use of the compass – which in turn improved the accuracy of existing information for maps and encouraged further exploration and discovery.
The foremost cartographer of the age of discovery was Geradus Mercator of Flanders, who developed a cylindrical projection, called the Mercator projection, for representing the curved surface of the Earth on a flat map. In 1569 he published a map of the world based on this projection.
In the 18th and 19th centuries cartography was transformed by precision scientific instruments and more accurate detail. Principal among those instruments were the telescope, which helped raise the quality of astronomical observations, and the chronometer (an accurate timepiece), which made the computation of longitude much less laborious than before. Elaborate national surveys were begun in several countries, notably in France, Great Britain, and the United States. Even so the rest of the world remained largely unmapped until the advent of aerial photography in World War II. The resulting World Aeronautical Charts provide generalized information for reconnaissance and other purposes.
Word list
AD | нашей эры |
BC | до нашей эры |
Orbis Terrarium | земной шар (лат.) |
Babylonians | вавилоняне, жители Вавилона |
authoritative reference | авторитетный (надежный) источник |
reconnaissance | разведка, рекогносцировка |
laborious | трудоемкий |
clay tablets | глиняные плитки (таблички) |
I Pronounce correctly:
Egyptian; Babylonians; Ionian; mathematician; authority, authoritative; cylindrical; projection; laborious; aerial; photography; reconnaissance.
II Complete the sentences:
1. Claudius Ptolemy had a great influence on … … .
2. The oldest maps are dated to about … … .
3. … … became the standard map of the world for 13 centuries.
4. Geradus Mercator developed a … … for representing the curved surface of the Earth.
5. … … was a long step forward in cartography.
III Say whether the statements are true or false:
1. The oldest maps were made by Arabs.
2. Cartography as a science was established by Greeks.
3. Orbis Terrarium was a standard map of the world in the 13th century.
4. The telescope and chronometer became the principal instruments of cartographers in 18th and 19th centuries.
5. Aerial photography came into use before the World War II.
IV Answer the questions:
1. Who made the oldest known maps?
2. How did Ionian geographers draw the Earth?
3. What is Claudius Ptolemy famous for?
4. What was cylindrical projection used for?
5. What instrument was important for astronomic observations?
6. When did aerial photography appear?
V Translate into English:
1. Caмые древние карты были сделаны вавилонянами на глиняных пластинках.
2. Большой вклад в развитие картографии сделал греческий математик и астроном Клавдий Птолемей.
3. Греческие географы изображали Землю в виде диска.
4. Меркатор – известный фламандский картограф, предложивший цилинд-рическую проекцию, которая до сих пор используется для морских карт.
5. В XVIII веке появился телескоп, который значительно повысил точность астрономических наблюдений.
6. Во время второй мировой войны впервые стали применять аэрофотосъёмку.
UNIT 12
GLOBAL POSITIONING
About the middle of the twentieth century scientists discovered a way to measure distances using radio signals. A more recent procedure for global positioning relies on satellites whose locations at any instant are known from a series of stations in all parts of the world. GPS (global positioning system) was developed by the US Department of Defense to simplify accurate navigation.
The satellites are high enough that they can avoid the problems encountered by land based systems and they use technology to really give pinpoint positions anywhere in the world 24 hours a day. In actual use people are getting measurement accuracies better than the width of an average street. And in “differential” mode surveyors are using GPS to make measurements down to a centimetre.
The basic principles behind GPS are really quite simple. Ignoring some of the details we can break the system into 5 conceptual pieces.
1. The basis of the system is triangulation from satellites.
2. To triangle, GPS measures distance using the travel time of radio message.
3. To measure travel time, GPS needs very accurate clocks.
4. Once you know distance to a satellite, you then need to know where the satellite is in space.
5. As the GPS signal travels through the ionosphere and the earth’s atmosphere, it gets delayed.
GPS is based on satellite ranging. That means that we figure our position on earth by measuring our distance from a group of satellites in space. The satellites act as precise reference points for us ( for triangulating our position somewhere on the earth). Position is calculated from distance measurement to satellites.
The GPS system works by timing how long it takes a radio signal to reach us from a satellite and then calculating the distance from that time. Radio waves travel at the speed of light 186,000 miles per second. So we can figure out exactly when the GPS satellite started sending its radio message and when we receive it we’ll know how long it took to reach us. We just multiply that time in seconds by 186,000 miles per second and that is our range to the satellites.
The big trick to measuring the travel time of the radio signal is to figure out exactly when the signal left satellite. To do that the designers of the GPS system came up with a clever idea: synchronize the satellites and receivers so they are generating the same code at exactly the same time. Then all we have to do is receive the codes from a satellite and then look back and see how long ago receiver generated the same code. The time difference is how long the signal took to get down to us.
Word list
navigation | навигация |
land-based system | наземная станция |
pinpoint position | точные координаты |
mode | режим работы; принцип |
differential ~ | режим работы на разностной частоте |
ionosphere | ионосфера |
time (v) | измерять время; отмечать время; хронометрировать |
delay | задержка; запаздывание |
message | сообщение |
radio ~ | радиосигнал |
travel time | время прохождения сигнала |
figure out | определять |
code | код; команда |
to generate ~ | посылать код; команду |
ranging satellite ~ | определение дальности; измерение расстояния определение расстояния с помощью спутника |
I Pronounce correctly:
procedure; positioning; location; navigation; satellite; average; triangulation; multiply; synchronize; differential.
II Find English equivalents of the following:
спутниковая навигационная система; радиосигнал; система наземных станций; точность измерений; производить измерения с точностью до 1см; время прохождения радиосигнала; радиоволна; определение расстояния до спутника; точно рассчитывать.
III Say, whether the statements are true or false:
1. GPS was developed in Russia to simplify accurate navigation.
2. Surveyors using GPS make measurements down to 1m.
3. The basis of GPS is triangulation from satellites.
4. GPS is based on satellite ranging.
5. We can’t say when the satellite starts sending radio signals.
IV Answer the questions:
1. When did the scientists find the way of measuring distances by means of radio signals?
2. Where was GPS developed?
3. What is the GPS measurement accuracy in differential mode?
4. What is the basis of GPS?
5. What does GPS need to measure travel time?
6. How do we locate our position on the earth by GPS?
V Translate into English:
1. Способ определения расстояния с помощью радиосигналов был открыт учёными в середине ХХ века.
2. GPS была разработана в министерстве обороны США для точного определения местоположения.
3. В основе GPS лежит триангуляция с помощью спутника.
4. Местоположение на земле определяется измерением расстояния до спутников, которые выполняют роль опорных точек.
5. Спутники и приёмники подают одинаковые сигналы в одно и то же время.
6. Время задержки означает, сколько времени понадобилось, чтобы сигнал достиг нашего местоположения.
VII Translate into Russian:
Satellite images
Many of the satellites revolving around the Earth have special sensors called multispectral scanners. These scanners record observations electronically and send them to ground puters then translate the data into electronic images making false-colour pictures. Even though the pictures are taken from far in space, they are so detailed that they can show houses or even sailboats on a lake.
An extraordinary group of earth satellites known as Landsats take many of the satellite images. These satellites circle the Earth 14 times every 24 hours, silently scanning, collecting, and sending back a greater view of the world than any eye could ever see.
CONTENTS
Unit 1. Geodesy……………………………………………..…………………..…...3
Unit 2. Earth…………………….……………………………………………..….…7
Unit 3. Surveying……………………….…………………………………..……...10
Unit 4. History of surveying………………………………………………...……...14
Unit 5. Methods of survey………….………………………………………...…….16
Unit 6. Surveying instruments……………………………………….…………......19
Unit 7. Measuring of distances………………………….………………………….22
Unit 8. Types of survey………………………………..…………………………...26
Unit 9. Map………………………………………………………..………………..29
Unit ponents of maps…………………………………………………...…..31
Unit 11. History of cartography…………………………………………………...…34
Unit 12. Global positioning……………………………………………...…………..36
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