English Grammar in Use (стр. 20 )

blame somebody/something FOR...:

* Everybody blamed me for the accident.

also: 'somebody is to blame for...':

* Everybody said that I was to blame for the accident.

also: blame something ON...:

* Everybody blamed the accident on me.

C. Verb + from

Suffer FROM (an illness etc.):

* The number of people suffering from heart disease has increased.

protect somebody/something FROM (or AGAINST) ...:

* Sun oil can protect the skin from the sun. (or. against the sun.)

D. Verb + on

depend ON.../rely ON...:

* 'What time will you arrive?' 'I don't know. It depends on the traffic.'

* You can rely on Jill. She always keeps her promises.

You can use depend + when/where/how etc. (question words) with or without on:

* 'Are you going to buy it?' 'It depends how much it is.' (or depends on how much) live ON (money/food):

* George's salary is very low. It isn't enough to live on.

congratulate (someone) ON.../compliment (somebody) ON...

* I congratulated her on her success0 the exam.

EXERCISES

134.1 Complete the second sentence so that it means the same as the first.

1. Sue said I was selfish. Sue accused me _of being selfish._

2. The misunderstanding was my fault, so I apologized.

I apologized ---.

3. She won the tournament, so I congratulated her.

I congratulated her ---.

4. He has enemies but he has a bodyguard to protect him.

He has a bodyguard to protect him ---.

5. There are 11 players in a football team.

A football team consists ---.

6. She eats only bread and eggs. She lives ---.

Complete the second sentence using for or on. (These sentences all have blame.)

7. Kay said that what happened was Jim's fault. Kay blamed Jim _for what happened._

8. You always say everything is my fault. You always blame me ---.

9. Do you think the economic crisis is the fault of the government?

Do you blame the government ---.

10. I think the increase in violent crime is because of television.

I blame the increase in ---.

Now rewrite sentences 9 and 10 using... to blame for...

Do you think the government ---.

I think that ---.

134.2 Complete the sentences using one of the following verbs (in the correct form) + the correct preposition:

accuse apologize approve congratulate depend live pay

1. His parents don't _approve of_ what he does, but they can't stop him.

2. When you went to the theatre with Paul, who --- the tickets?

3. It's not very pleasant when you are --- something you didn't do.

4. 'Are you playing tennis tomorrow?' 'I hope so. It --- the weather.'

5. Things are very cheap there. You can --- very little money.

6. When I saw Dave, I --- him --- passing his driving test.

7. You were very rude to Fiona. Don't you think you should --- her?

134.3 Put in the correct preposition. If no preposition is necessary, leave the space empty (-)

1. Three students were suspected _of_ cheating in the examination.

2. Sally is often not well. She suffers --- very bad headaches.

3. You know that you can rely --- me if you ever need any help.

4. It is terrible that some people are dying --- hunger while others eat too much.

5. Are you going to apologize --- what you did?

6. The accident was my fault, so I had to pay --- the damage.

7. I didn't have enough money to pay --- the bill.

8. I complimented her --- her English. She spoke fluently and made very few mistakes.

9. She hasn't got a job. She depends --- her parents for money.

10. I don't know whether I'll go out tonight. It depends --- how I feel.

11. They wore warm clothes to protect themselves --- the cold.

12. The apartment consists --- three rooms, a kitchen and bathroom.

UNIT 135 Verb + preposition (5) in/into/with/to/on

A. Verb + in

believe IN...

* Do you believe in God? (=do you believe that God exists?)

* I believe in saying what I think. (=I believe it is right to say what I think)

specialize IN...

* Helen is a lawyer. She specializes in company law.

succeed IN...

* I hope you succeed in finding the job you want.

B. Verb +into

break INTO...

* Our house was broken into a few days ago but nothing was stolen.

crash/drive/bump/run INTO...

* He lost control of the car and crashed into a wall.

divide/cut/split something INTO (two or more parts):

* The book is divided into three parts.

* Cut the meat into small pieces before frying it.

translate (a book etc.) FROM one language INTO another:

* George Orwell's books have been translated into many languages.

C. Verb + with

collide WITH...

* There was an accident this morning. A bus collided with a car. (but 'crashed into') fill something WITH. (but full of.-see Unit 130B):

* Take this saucepan and fill it with water.

provide/supply somebody WITH...

* The school provides all its students with books.

D. Verb + to

happen TO...:

* What happened to that gold watch you used to have? (= where is it now?)

prefer one thing/person TO another:

* I prefer tea to coffee.

E. Verb + on

concentrate ON...:

* Don't look out of the window. Concentrate on your work.

insist ON...:

* I wanted to go alone but they insisted on coming with me.

spend (money) ON...:

* How much money do you spend on food each week?

EXERCISES

135.1 Complete the second sentence so that it means the same as the first.

1. There was a collision between a bus and a car. A bus collided _with a car._

2. I don't mind big cities but I prefer small towns.

I prefer ---.

3. I got all the information I needed from Jill.

Jill provided me ---.

4. This morning I bought a pair of shoes which cost -'60.

This morning I spent ---.

135.2 Complete the sentences using one of the following verbs (in the correct form) + the correct preposition:

believe concentrate divide drive fill happen insist succeed

1. I wanted to go alone but Sue _insisted on_ coming with me.

2. I haven't seen Harry for ages. I wonder what has --- him.

3. I was driving along when the car in front of me stopped suddenly. Unfortunately, I couldn't stop in time and --- the back of it.

4. It's a very large house. It's --- four flats.

5. I don't --- ghosts. I think people only imagine that they see them.

6. Steve gave me an empty bucket and told me to --- it --- water.

7. Don't try and do two things together --- one thing at a time.

8. It wasn't easy but in the end we --- finding a solution to the problem.

135.3 Put in the correct preposition.

1. The school provides all its students _with_ books.

2. A strange thing happened --- me a few days ago.

3. Mark decided to give up sport so that he could concentrate --- his studies.

4. I don't believe --- working very hard. It's not worth it.

5. My present job isn't wonderful, but I prefer it --- what I did before.

6. I hope you succeed --- getting what you want.

7. As I was coming out of the room, I collided --- somebody who was coming in.

8. There was an awful noise as the car crashed --- a tree.

9. Jim is a photographer. He specializes --- sports photography.

10. Do you spend much money --- clothes?

11. The country is divided --- six regions.

12. I prefer travelling by train --- driving. It's much more pleasant.

13. Somebody broke --- my car and stole the radio.

14. I felt quite cold but Peter insisted --- having the window open.

15. Some words are difficult to translate --- one language another.

16. What happened --- the money I lent you? What did you spend it?

17. The teacher decided to split the class --- four groups.

18. I filled the tank but unfortunately I filled it --- the wrong kind of petrol.

135.4 Use your own ideas to complete these sentences. Use a preposition.

1. I wanted to go out alone but my friend insisted _on coming with me._

2. I spend quite a lot of money ---.

3. I saw the accident. The car crashed ---.

4. Sarah prefers basketball ---.

5. Shakespeare's plays have been translated ---.

UNIT 136 Phrasal verbs (getup/ breakdown /fill in etc.)

A. We often use verbs with the following words:

in out on off up down away back round through about along over forward by

So you can say put out/get on/take off/run away etc. These verbs are phrasal verbs. We often use out/off/up etc. with verbs of movement. For example:

get on: * The bus was full. We couldn't get on.

drive off: * A woman got into the car and drove off.

come back: * Sally is leaving tomorrow and coming back on Saturday.

turn round: * When I touched him on the shoulder, he turned round.

But often the second word (out/off/up etc.) gives a special meaning to the verb. For example:

break down: * Sorry I'm late. The car broke down. (= the engine stopped working)

look out: * Look out! There's a car coming. (= be careful)

take off: * It was my first flight. I was nervous as the plane took off. (= went into the air)

get up: * I was very tired this morning. I couldn't get up. (= get out of bed)

get on: * How was the exam? How did you get on? (= how did you do?)

get by: * My French isn't very good but it's enough to get by. (= to manage)

B. Sometimes a phrasal verb is followed by a preposition. For example:

* Why did you run away from me?

* You're walking too fast. I can't keep up with you.

* Are you looking forward to your holiday?

* Jack is trying to cut down on smoking. (=reduce smoking)

C. Sometimes a phrasal verb has an object. Usually there are two possible positions for the object. So you can say:

I turned off _the light._(object) or I turned the light off.

If the object is a pronoun (it/them/me/him etc.), only one position is possible:

I turned it off. (not 'I turned off it')

Some more examples:

* Could you fill in this form?

* Could you fill this form in?

but They gave me a form and told me to fill it in. (not 'fill in it')

* The police got into the house by breaking down the door.

* The police got into the house by breaking the door down.

but The door wasn't locked. Why did the police break it down? (not 'break down it')

* I think I'll throw away these newspapers.

* I think I'll throw these newspapers away.

but Do you want these newspapers or shall I throw them away? (not 'throw away them')

* Don't wake up the baby.

* Don't wake the baby up.

but The baby is asleep. Don't wake her up. (not 'wake up her')

EXERCISES

136.1 Complete the sentences using one of these phrasal verbs (in the correct form):

break down

drop out (= stop taking part in something)

clear up (= become brighter-for weather)

move in (= start living in a house etc.)

close down (= go out of business)

show off (= show how clever you are)

doze off (= fall asleep)

turn up (= appear/arrive)

1. Sorry I'm late. The car _broke down_ on the way here.

2. I arranged to meet Jane after work last night but she didn't ---.

3. 'We've bought a new house.' 'Oh, have you? When are you ---?'

4. There used to be a shop at the end of the street but it --- a year ago.

5. I ran in a marathon last week but I wasn't fit enough. I --- after 15 kilometres.

6. We all know how wonderful you are. There's no need to ---.

7. I was very tired. I sat in an armchair and ---.

8. The weather is horrible at the moment, isn't it? I hope it --- later.

136.2 Complete the sentences using a word from List A and a word from List B. You need to use some words more than once.

A: away back forward on out up,

B: at of to with

1. You're walking too fast. I can't keep _up with_ you.

2. My holidays are nearly over. Next week I'll be --- work.

3. We've nearly run --- money. We've got very little left.

4. Martin isn't very happy in his job because he doesn't get --- his boss.

5. I love to look --- the stars in the sky at night.

6. Are you looking --- the party next week?

7. There was a bank robbery last week. The robbers got --- 30,000 pounds.

136.3 Complete the sentences using one of these verbs (in the correct form) + it/them/her/you:

cross out give away, make up, turn down (= refuse) fill in, give back, show round see off (= see somebody leave)

1. They gave me a form and told me to _fill in it._

2. If you make a mistake on the form, just ---.

3. The story she told you wasn't true. She ---.

4. I don't like people who borrow things and don't ---.

5. Katy is going to Australia tomorrow. I'm going to the airport to ---.

6. I had a lot of books that I didn't want to keep, so I --- to a friend.

7. Would you like to see the factory? Would you like me to ---?

8. Sue was offered a job as a translator but she ---.

136.4 Complete the sentences. Use the word in brackets (away/up etc.) with one of the following:

that box your cigarette a jacket the television a word it it them him

1. Don't throw _away that box(or that away)._ I want to keep it. (away)

2. 'Do you want this box?' 'No, you can throw _it away._' (away)

3. Shhh! The children are asleep. Don't wake ---. (up)

4. We can turn --- Nobody is watching it. (off)

5. Tom got very angry and started shouting. I tried to calm --- (down)

6. I tried --- in the shop but I didn't buy it. (on)

7. Please put --- This is a no-smoking area. (out)

8. It was only a small fire. I was able to put --- quite easily. (out)

9. You can look --- in a dictionary if you don't know what it means. (up)

10. You're doing very well. Keep ---! (up)

APPENDIX 1

Regular and irregular verbs

1.1 Regular verbs

If a verb is regular, the past simple and past participle end in ~ed. For example;

infinitive: clean, finish, use, paint, stop, carry

past simple, past participle: cleaned, finished, used, painted, stopped, carried

For spelling rules, see Appendix 6.

For the past simple (I cleaned/they finished/she carried etc.), see Unit 5.

We use the past participle to make the perfect tenses and for all the passive forms.

Perfect tenses (have/has/had cleaned):

* I have cleaned the windows. (present perfect - see Units 7-8)

* They were still working. They hadn't finished. (past perfect - see Unit 15)

Passive (is cleaned/was cleaned etc.):

* He was carried out of the room. (past simple passive) see Units 41-43

* This gate has just been painted. (present perfect passive) J

1.2 Irregular verbs

When the past simple/past participle do not end in ~ed (for example, I saw/I have seen), the verb is irregular.

With some irregular verbs, all three forms (infinitive, past simple and past participle) are the same. For example, hit:

* Don't hit me. (infinitive)

* Somebody hit me as I came into the room. (past simple)

* I've never hit anybody in my life. (past participle-present perfect)

* George was hit on the head by a stone. (past participle-passive)

With other irregular verbs, the past simple is the same as the past participle (but different from the infinitive). For example, tell -> told:

* Can you tell me what to do? (infinitive)

* She told me to come back the next day. (past simple)

* Have you told anybody about your new job? (past participle-present perfect)

* I was told to come back the next day. (past participle-passive)

With other irregular verbs, all three forms are different. For example, wake -> woke/woken:

* I'll wake you up. (infinitive)

* I woke up in the middle of the night. (past simple)

* The baby has woken up. (past participle - present perfect)

* I was woken up by a loud noise. (past participle - passive)

1.3 The following verbs can be regular or irregular:

burn -> burned or burnt

dream -> dreamed or dreamt [dremt]

lean -> leaned or leant [lent]

learn -> learned or learnt

smell -> smelled or smelt

spell -> spelled or spelt

spill -> spilled or spilt

spoil -> spoiled or spoilt

So you can say:

* I leant out of the window. or I leaned out of the window.

* The dinner has been spoilt. or The dinner has been spoiled.

In British English the irregular form (burnt/learnt etc.) is more usual.

For American English, see Appendix 7.

1.4 List of irregular verbs

infinitive past simple past participle

be was/were been

beat beat beaten

become became become

begin began begun

bend bent bent

bet bet bet

bite bit bitten

blow blew blown

break broke broken

bring brought brought

broadcast broadcast broadcast

build built built

burst burst burst

buy bought bought

catch caught caught

choose chose chosen

come came come

cost cost cost

creep crept crept

cut cut cut

deal dealt dealt

dig dug dug

do did done

draw draw drawn

drink drank drunk

drive drove driven

eat ate eaten

fall fell fallen

feed fed fed

feel felt felt

fight fought fought

find found found

flee fled fled

fly flew flown

forbid forbade forbidden

forget forgot forgotten

forgive forgave forgiven

freeze froze frozen

get got got

give gave given

go went gone

grow grew grown

hang hung hung

have had had

hear heard heard

hide hid hidden

hit hit hit

hold held held

hurt hurt hurt

keep kept kept

kneel knelt knelt

know knew known

lay laid laid

lead led led

lend lent lent

let let let

lie lay lain

light lit lit

lose lost lost

make made made

mean meant meant

meet met met

pay paid paid

put put put

read read read

ride rode ridden

ring rang rung

rise rose risen

run ran run

say said said

see saw seen

seek sought sought

sell sold sold

send sent sent

set set set

sew sewed sewn/sewed

shake shook shaken

shine shone shone

shoot shot shot

show showed shown/showed

shrink shrank shrunk

shut shut shut

sing sang sung

sink sank sunk

sit sat sat

sleep slept slept

slide slid slid

speak spoke spoken

spend spent spent

spit spat spat

split split split

spread spread spread

spring sprang sprung

stand stood stood

steal stole stolen

stick stuck stuck

sting stung stung

stink stank stunk

strike struck struck

swear sore sworn

sweep swept swept

swim swam swum

swing swung swung

take took taken

teach taught taught

tear tore torn

tell told told

think thought thought

throw threw thrown

understand understood understood

wake woke woken

wear wore worn

weep wept wept

win won won

write wrote written

APPENDIX 2

Present and past tenses

#1 I do

present simple (-> Units 2-4)

* Ann often plays tennis.

* I work in a bank but I don't enjoy it very much.

* Do you like parties?

* It doesn't rain much in summer.

#2 I am doing

present continuous (-> Units 1, 3-4)

* 'Where's Ann?' 'She's playing tennis.'

* Please don't disturb me now. I'm working.

*Hello. Are you enjoying the party?

* It isn't raining at the moment.

#3 I have done

perfect I present perfect simple (-> Units 7-8, 10-14)

Ann has played tennis many times.

* I've lost my key. Have you seen it anywhere?

* How long have they known each other?

* 'Is it still raining?' 'No, it has stopped.'

* The house is dirty. We haven't cleaned it for weeks.

#4 I have been doing

present perfect continuous (-> Units 9-11)

* Ann is very tired. She has been playing tennis.

* Your're out of breath. Have you been running?

* How long have they been learning English?

* It's still raining. It has been raining all day.

* I haven't been feeling well recently. Perhaps I should go to the doctor.

#5 I did

past simple (-> Units 5-6, 13-14)

* Ann played tennis yesterday afternoon.

* I lost my key a few days ago.

* There was a film on TV last night but we didn't watch it.

* What did you do when you finished work yesterday?

#6 I was doing

past continuous (-> Unit 6)

* I saw Ann in the park yesterday. She was playing tennis.

* I dropped my key when I was trying to open the door.

* The television was on but we weren't watching it.

* What were you doing at this time yesterday?

#7 I had done

past perfect (-> Unit 15)

* It wasn't her first game of tennis. She had played many times before.

* I couldn't get into the house because I had lost my key.

* The house was dirty because we hadn't cleaned it for weeks.

#8 I had been doing

past perfect continuous (-> Unit 16)

* Ann was tired yesterday evening because she had been playing tennis in the afternoon.

* George decided to go to the doctor because he hadn't been feeling well.

For the passive, see Units 41-43.

APPENDIX 3

The future

3.1 List of future forms

* I'm leaving tomorrow. present continuous (-> Unit 19A)

* My train leaves at 9.30. present simple (-> Unit 19B)

* I'm going to leave tomorrow. (be) going to (-> Units 20, 23)

* I'll leave tomorrow. will (-> Units 21-23)

* I'll be leaving tomorrow. future continuous (-> Unit 24)

* I'll have left by this time tomorrow. future perfect (-> Unit 24)

* I hope to see you before I leave tomorrow. present simple (-> Unit 25)

3.2 Future actions

We use the present continuous (I'm doing) for arrangements:

* I'm leaving tomorrow. I've got my plane ticket. (already planned and arranged)

* 'When are they getting married?' 'Next month.'

We use the present simple (I leave/it leaves etc.) for timetables, programmes etc,:

* My train leaves at 9.30. (according to the timetable)

* What time does the film begin?

We use (be) going to... to say what somebody has already decided to do:

* I've decided not to stay here any longer. I'm going to leave tomorrow. (or I'm leaving tomorrow.)

* Are you going to watch the film on television tonight?

We use will ('ll) when we decide or agree to do something at the time of speaking:

* A: I don't want you to stay here any longer.

B: OK. I'll leave tomorrow. (B decides this at the time of speaking)

* That bag looks heavy. I'll help you with it.

* I promise I won't tell anybody what happened. (won't =will not)

3.3 Future happenings and situations

Most often we use will to talk about future happenings or situations ('something will happen'):

* I don't think John is happy in his job. I think he'll leave soon.

* This time next year I'll be in Japan. Where will you be?

We use (be) going to when the situation now shows what is going to happen in the future:

* Look at those black clouds. It's going to rain. (you can see the clouds now)

3.4 Future continuous and future perfect

Will be (do)ing = will be in the middle of (doing something):

* This time next week I'll be on holiday. I'll be lying on a beach and swimming in the sea.

We also use will be ~ing for future actions (see Unit 24C):

* What time will you be leaving tomorrow?

We use will have (done) to say that something will already be complete before a time in the future:

* I won't be here this time tomorrow. I'll have already left.

3.5 We use the present (not 'will') after when/if/while/before etc. (see Unit 25):

* I hope to see you before I leave tomorrow. (not 'before I will leave')

* You must come and see us when you are in England again. (not 'when you will be')

* If we don't huffy, we'll be late.

APPENDIX 4

Modal verbs (can/could/will/would etc.)

This appendix is a summary of modal verbs (can/could/will/would etc.). For more information, see Units 21-40.

4.1 Compare can/could etc. for actions:

can

* I can go out tonight. (= there is nothing to stop me)

* I can't go out tonight.

could

* I could go out tonight. (but I'm not very keen)

* I couldn't go out last night. (= I wasn't able)

can or may

* Can I go out tonight? (=do you allow me to go out?)

May I go out tonight?

will/won't

* I think I'll go out tonight.

* I promise I won't go out.

would

* I would go out tonight but I've got too much to do.

* I promised I wouldn't go out.

shall

* Shall I go out tonight? (= do you think it is a good idea?)

should or ought to

* I should(ought to) go out tonight. (= it would be a good thing.)

must

* I must go out tonight. it is necessary)

* I mustn't go out tonight. it is necessary that I do not go out)

needn't

* I needn't go out tonight. (= it is not necessary that I go out)

Compare could have.../would have... etc.:

could

* I could have gone out last night but I decided to stay at home.

would

* I would have gone out last night but I had too much to do.

should or ought to

* I should(ought to) have gone out last night. I'm sorry I didn't.

needn't

* I needn't have gone out last night. (= I went out but it was not necessary)

4.2 We use will/would/may etc. to say whether something is possible, impossible, probable, certain pare:

Will

* 'What time will she be here?' 'She'll be here soon.'

would

* She would be here now but she has been delayed.

should or ought to

* She should(ought to) be here soon. (= I expect she will be here soon)

may or might or could

* She may be here now. I'm not sure. (= it's possible that she is here)

* She might be here now. I'm not sure. (= it's possible that she is here)

* She could be here now. I'm not sure. (= it's possible that she is here)

must

* She must be here. I saw her come in. (= I'm sure--there is no other possibility)

can't

* She can't possibly be here. I know for certain that she's away on holiday.

Compare would have.../should have... etc.:

will

* She will have arrived by now.

would

* She would have arrived earlier but she was delayed.

should or ought

* I wonder where she is. She should have arrived by now.

* I wonder where she is. She ought to have arrived by now.

may or might or could

* She may have arrived. I'm not sure. (= it's possible that she has arrived)

* She might have arrived. I'm not sure. (= it's possible that she has arrived)

* She could have arrived. I'm not sure. (= it's possible that she has arrived)

must

* She must have arrived by now. (I'm sure--there is no other possibility)

can't

* She can't possibly have arrived yet. It's much too early. (=it's impossible)

APPENDIX 5

Short forms (I'm/you've/didn't etc.)

1. In spoken English we usually say I'm/you've/didn't etc. (short forms) rather than I am/you have/did not etc. We also use short forms in informal written English (for example, in letters to friends).

When we write short forms, we use an apostrophe (') for the missing letter(s):

I'm = I am you've = you have didn't = did not

5.2 List of short forms of auxiliary verbs

'm = am -> I'm

's = is or has -> he's, she's, it's

're= are -> you're, we're, they're

've = have -> I've, you've, we've, they've

'll = will -> I'll, he'll, she'll, you'll, we'll, they'll

'd = would or had -> I'd, he'd, she'd, you'd, we'd, they'd

's can be is or has:

* She's ill. (= She is ill.)

* She's gone away. (= She has gone away.)

but let's = let us:

* Let's go now. (= Let us go)

'd can be would or had:

* I'd see a doctor if I were you. (= I would see)

* I'd never seen her before. (= I had never seen)

We use some of these short forms (especially 's) after question words (who/what etc.) and after that/there/here:

who's, what's, where's, how's, that's, there's, here's, who'll, there'll, who'd

* Who's that woman over there? (= who is)

* What's happened? (= what has)

* Do you think there'll be many people at the party? (= there will)

You can also use short forms (especially 's) after a noun:

* John's going out tonight. (= John is)

* My friend's just got married. (= My friend has)

You cannot use 'm/'s/'re/'ve/'ll/'d at the end of a sentence (because the verb is stressed in this position):

* 'Are you tired?' 'Yes, I am.' (not 'Yes, I'm.')

* Do you know where she is? (not 'Do you know where she's?')

5.3 Negative short forms

isn't(= is not) aren't(= are not) wasn't(= was not) weren't(= were not) doesn't(= doesn't) didn't(= did not) don't(= do not) haven't(= have not) hasn't(= has not) hadn't(= had not) can't(= cannot) couldn't(= could not) won't(= will not) wouldn't(= would not) shan't(= shall not) shouldn't(= should not) mightn't(= might not) mustn't(= must not) needn't(= need not) daren't(= dare not)

Negative short forms for is and are can be:

he isn't/she isn't/it isn't or he's not/she's not/it's not

you aren't/we aren't/they aren't or you're not/we're not/they're not

APPENDIX 6

Spelling

6.1 Nouns, verbs and adjectives can have the following endings:

noun + ~s/es (plural): books ideas matches

verb + ~s/~es (after he/she/it): works enjoys washes

verb + ~ing: working enjoying washing

verb + ~ed: worked enjoyed washed

adjective + ~er (comparative): cheaper quicker brighter

adjective + ~est (superlative): cheapest quickest brightest

adjective + ~ly (adverb): cheaply quickly brightly

When we use these endings, there are sometimes changes in spelling. These changes are listed below.

6.2 Nouns and verbs + ~s/~es

The ending is ~es when the word ends in ~s/~ss/~sh/~ch/~x:

match/matches, wash/washes, bus/buses, miss/misses, box/boxes, search/searches

Note also:

potato/potatoes, do/does, tomato/tomatoes, go/goes

6.3 Words ending in ~y (baby, carry, easy etc.)

If a word ends in a consonant + y (~by/~ry/~sy/~vy etc.):

y changes to ie before the ending ~s:

baby/babies lorry/lorries hurry/hurries study/studies country/countries apply/applies secretary/secretaries try/tries

y changes to i before the ending ~ed:

hurry/hurried study/studied apply/applied try/tried

y changes to i before the endings ~er and - est:

easy/easier/easiest heavy/heavier/heaviest lucky/luckier/luckiest

y changes to i before the ending ~ly:

easy/easily heavy/heavily temporary/temporarily

y does not change before ~ing:

hurrying, studying, applying, trying

y does not change if the word ends in a vowel + y (~ay/~ey/~oy/~uy):

play/plays/played enjoy/enjoys/enjoyed buy/buys, monkey/monkeys

An exception is: day/daily

Note also: pay/paid, lay/laid, say/said

6.4 Verbs ending in ~ie (die, lie, tie)

If a verb ends in ~ie, ie changes to y before the ending ~ing: die/dying lie/lying tie/tying

@p281

APPENDIX 6

6.5 Words ending in - e (hope, dance, wide etc.)

#1 Verbs

If a verb ends in ~e, we leave out e before the ending ~ing:

hope/hoping smile/smiling dance/dancing confuse/confusing

Exceptions arc: be/being

and verbs ending in ~ee: see/seeing agree/agreeing

If a verb ends in ~e, we add ~d for the past (of regular verbs):

hope/hoped smile/smiled dance/danced confuse/confused

#2 Adjectives and adverbs

If an adjective ends in ~e, we add ~r and ~st for the comparative and superlative:

wide/wider/widest late/later/latest large/larger/largest

If an adjective ends in ~e, we keep e before the adverb ending ~1y:

polite/politely extreme/extremely absolute/absolutely

If an adjective ends in ~le (simple, terrible etc.), the adverb ending is ~ply, ~bly etc.:

simple/simply terrible/terribly reasonable/reasonably

6.6 Doubling consonants (stop/stopping/stopped, wet/wetter/wettest etc.)

Sometimes a word ends in vowel + consonant. For example:

stop, plan, wet, thin, slip, prefer, regret

Before the endings ~ing/~ed/~er/-est, we double the consonant at the end. So p -> pp, n -> nn etc. For example:

stop p -> pp stopping stopped

plan n -> nn planning planned

rub b -> bb rubbing rubbed

big g -> gg bigger biggest

wet t -> tt wetter wettest

thin n -> nn thinner thinnest

If the word has more than one syllable (prefer, begin etc.), we double the consonant at the end only if the final syllable is stressed:

preFER/preferring preferred

perMIT/permitting/permitted

reGRET/regretting/regretted

beGIN/beginning

If the final syllable is not stressed, we do not double the final consonant:

VISit/visiting/visited

deVELop/developing/developed

HAPpen/happening/happened

reMEMber/remembering/remembered

In British English, verbs ending in -1 have -]I - before ~ing and ~ed whether the final syllable is stressed or not:

travel/travelling/travelled

cancel/cancelling/cancelled

For American spelling, see Appendix 7.

Note that:

we do not double the final consonant if the word ends in two consonants (~rt, ~1p, ~ng etc.): start/starting/started, help/helping/helped, long/longer/longest

we do not double the final consonant if there are two vowel letters before it (~oil, ~eed etc.): boil/boiling/boiled, need/needing/needed, explain/explaining/explained, cheap/cheaper/cheapest, loud/louder/loudest, quiet/quieter/quietest

we do not double y or w at the end of words. (At the end of words y and w are not consonants.)

stay/staying/stayed, grow/growing, new/newer/newest

APPENDIX 7

American English

There are a few grammatical differences between British English and American English:

UNIT 7A-B and 13A

BRITISH

The present perfect is used for an action in the past with a result now:

* I've lost my key. Have you seen it?

* Sally isn't here. She's gone out.

The present perfect is used with just, already and yet:

* A: What time is he leaving?

B: He has already left.

* Have you finished your work yet?

AMERICAN

The present perfect OR past simple can be used:

* I've lost my key. Have you seen it? or I lost my key. Did you see it?

* Sally isn't here. She's gone out. She went out.

The present perfect OR past simple can be used:

* I'm not hungry. I've just had lunch. I've just had lunch.

* A: What time is he leaving?

B: He has already left. He already left.

* Have you finished your work yet? or Did you finish your work yet?

UNIT 17B

BRITISH: have a bath/have a shower

AMERICAN: take a bath/take a shower

UNIT 22D

BRITISH

Will or shall can be used with I/we:

* I will/shall be late this evening. The questions shall I ...? and shall we...? are used to ask for advice etc.:

* Which way shall we go?

AMERICAN

Shall is unusual:

* I will be late this evening. Should I...? and should we ...? are used to ask for advice etc.:

* Which way should we go?

UNIT 32B

BRITISH

You can use needn't (do) or don't need to (do):

* We needn't hurry. or We don't need to hurry.

AMERICAN

Needn't is unusual. The usual form is don't need to:

* We don't need to hurry.

UNIT 34 A-B

BRITISH

After demand, insist etc. you can use should:

* I demanded that he should apologize.