Mass Media Research: An Introduction, 8th Edition Instructor’s Manual (стр. 3 )

There are two types of samples: probability samples and nonprobability samples. A probability sample follows mathematical guidelines and allows researcher to calculate the estimated sampling error present in a study. Probability samples include random samples, where each subjects in a population has an equal chance of being selected; systematic random samples, stratified samples, and cluster samples.

In addition, this chapter explains several types of nonprobability samples, including available samples, volunteer samples, purposive samples, and quota samples. The process of sampling and the advantages/disadvantages of each sampling methods are described in detail.

Sampling methods must be selected carefully by considering issues such as the purpose of the study, cost versus value, time constraints, and the amount of acceptable sampling error.

In this chapter, two concepts related to sampling error are described—confidence level and confidence interval. In addition, the process of computing sampling error is explained.

Exercises

Search the Internet for “sampling.” One good website to get you started is located at: http://jan. ucc. nau. edu/~mezza/nur390/Mod3/sampling. Using a table of “random numbers,” let students generate a simple random sample from the students’ list in your class or department.

Multiple Choice

The biggest difference between a probability and a non-probability sample is:

a)  Non-probability samples have smaller measurement errors

b)  Probability samples have smaller measurement errors

c)  There is no sampling error in a probability sample

d)  It is impossible to calculate the amount of sampling error present in a non-probability sample.

Which of following is not an example of a non-probability sample?

a)  Convenience sample

b)  Multistage sample

c)  Volunteer sample

d)  Quota sample

Which of the following is not an advantage of a simple random sample?

a)  Detailed knowledge of population not required

b)  External validity can be inferred

c)  Cheaper than other methods

d)  Representative group easily attainable

Sampling interval is most closely associated with what kind of sample?

a)  Simple random

b)  Quota

c)  Systematic random

d)  Convenience

All other things equal, as sample size increases:

a)  Standard error decreases

b)  Confidence level increases

c)  Confidence level decreases

d)  Random error becomes constant

Which of the following research techniques usually uses the smallest sample size?

a)  Multivariate studies

b)  Panel surveys

c)  Focus groups

d)  Phone surveys

Which of the following is not an advantage of a stratified random sample?

a)  Representativeness of relevant variables is assured

b)  No prior knowledge of population is needed

c)  Sampling error is reduced

d)  Selection is made from a homogenous group

True/False

A census is a subset of the population. (F) Non-probability samples are usually adequate for pilot studies. (T) The confidence interval and the confidence level are two different names for the same concept. (F) One of the problems associated with random digit dialing (RDD) is the large number of invalid telephone numbers generated. (T) Sampling error occurs when measurements taken from a sample do not correspond to what exists in the population. (T)

Fill in the Blank

The process of examining every member of a population is called a (census). A characteristic of the population is called a (parameter). A telephone directory is an example of a (sampling frame). To calculate the (.95) confidence interval, you would imply the standard error by 1.96. A statistical procedure known as (weighting) or (sample balancing) is sometimes used to overcome sampling inadequacies.

Short Answer

Differentiate among the major types of probability sampling. What are the stages in multistage sampling?

Chapter 5 - Qualitative Research Methods

Overview

This chapter describes qualitative research methods. Three basic paradigms are discussed: the positivist paradigm, the interpretive paradigm, and the critical paradigm. The positivist paradigm, which underpins quantitative research methods, involves such concepts as quantification, hypotheses, and objective measurements. The interpretive paradigm, which underpins qualitative methods, concerns how people create meaning in everyday lives and try to interpret the world. The critical paradigm is interested in understanding the distribution of power in society.

The process of qualitative research in mass media is described in terms of data analysis, reliability, and validity in qualitative data. Two popular forms of data analysis are the constant comparative method and the analytic induction method. Five common qualitative research methods are next presented in detail: field observations, focus groups, intensive interviews, case studies, and ethnography.

Field observation involves studying a phenomenon in a natural setting. Field observation is often used as a pilot study to identify important frames for a hypothesis and to provide useful preliminary information. The role of an observer is important when deciding between covert/overt participation and observation. In field observation, researchers should choose the research site carefully to avoid subject reactivity problems.

Focus groups are similar to group interviewing and they are often used to understand respondents’ attitudes and behaviors. The focus group method also can be used as a pilot study to gather preliminary information about some phenomena. The role of the moderator in this method is crucial. A focus group is appropriate to answer why or how questions instead of how much or how many. Online focus groups are widely used in private sector research but the technique has many problems.

Intensive interviews, or in-depth interviews, are similar to the one-on-one interview approach. Even though intensive interviews have several disadvantages, including lack of generalizability and interviewer bias problems, these methods are useful to collect in-depth and detailed information. Also, researchers can collect responses that are more accurate on sensitive issues by building rapport with participants.

Case studies are conducted to understand or explain a phenomenon by using as many data sources as possible. The case study method is useful for suggesting why something has occurred. A wealth of information and tremendous detail of information are advantages of case studies. However, sometimes it is very hard to analyze and summarize these huge amounts of information.

Ethnography involves intensive field research that uses a variety of data gathering techniques to examine a problem from the point of view of the participants. Ethnography can be either descriptive or critical.

There is no single approach to writing a qualitative research report because there are so many variations of the method. However, most qualitative reports include an introduction (an overview of the project), methods (data collection approach), the research setting, sampling procedures, data collection procedures, findings, and conclusion.

Exercises

The focus group procedure can be demonstrated easily in your classroom by allowing the students to conduct a focus group for a class assignment. Have students select a topic of interest to them and conduct a focus group in the classroom using other students from the class. One thing students will learn is that moderating a focus group is not as easy as it may seem. Search “ethnography” in the Internet to discover the many ways the term is used, investigated, and reported. Choose a public place where people watch TV (a bar, for example). Become a covert observer and see if you find rules or norms that are followed in this setting.

Multiple Choice

Which of the following was not listed as a step in the constant comparative technique?

a)  Comparative assignment of incidents to categories

b)  Elaboration and refinement of categories

c)  Searching for relationships with data from similar studies

d)  Simplifying and integrating data into a coherent theoretical structure

Which of the following is not a true statement about field observation?

a)  One type of field observation is called covert participant

b)  It is usually inexpensive

c)  Observe bias may favor certain preconceptions

d)  The observer may influence the behavior of subjects

Which of the following is a disadvantage of focus group research?

a)  One participant can dominate the conversation

b)  Respondents tend to give incomplete answers to questions

c)  The subjects must be articulate to participate

d)  The results obtained cannot be generalized to an entire population

Upon what type of reasoning do most case studies depend?

a)  Deductive

b)  Inductive

c)  Reductive

d)  Pluralistic

Which of the following is not an advantage of using a notebook computer in field observations?

a)  Storing field notes as text and structuring data as files

b)  Scanning field notes for key words and phrases

c)  Performing complex statistical functions, such as ANOVA, on field notes

d)  Processing field notes on location

Which of the following is a problem in personal interviewing?

a)  Unstructured question format

b)  Multistage sampling

c)  The possibility of interviewer bias

d)  Low response rate

Which of the following is not a factor to help build credibility in qualitative research?

a)  Audit trail

b)  Expert sources

c)  Research team

d)  Multiple methods of data collection