Материалы текущего, промежуточного и итогового
контроля знаний студентов
ЗАДАНИЕ 1
Вариант 1
1. В каждой строчке найдите и выпишите слово, которое не рифмуется с остальными.
fire mire care tire
our flower flour more
air cure pair where
pure during tube cure
where here dear hear
sure poor more moor
2. Образуйте множественное число следующих существительных, если это возможно.
A party, a potato, a man, information, a day, a room, a sandwich, a phenomenon, an orange, water, a mouse, a wife, a merry-go-round, a fireman, a fruit, a rose, a headquarters, a glass, a life, a fly, a fox, a goose.
3. Составьте предложения из данных слов.
1. (a newspaper/reads/every day/Jill)
2. (football/don’t/like/very much/I)
3. (lost/I/my watch/last week)
4. (Tom/the letter/slowly/read)
5. (London/Do/know/you/very well)
6. (ate/we/very quickly/our dinner)
7. (did/buy/you/that/in England/jacket)
8. (well/I/don’t/very/speak/French)
9. (crossed/the street/they/carefully)
10. (from/brother/my/borrowed/£50/I)
4. Образуйте степени сравнения следующих прилагательных, если это возможно.
High, big, honorable, round, good, busy, slow, polite, final, absent-minded.
5. a) Напишите словами следующие числительные.
13; 147; 555; 1,933; 48,593,321; 10.957; 385,284,639; 3/5; 83; 11,385,712.
b) Переведите на английский язык следующие порядковые числительные.
Первый, двенадцатый, тридцать девятый, сороковой, одна тысяча пятьсот восемьдесят третий.
c) Напишите словами следующие даты.
1 сентября 1845 года, 30 июня 2002 года, 21 апреля 1906года, 31 декабря 2000 года, дату Вашего рождения.
d) Напишите словами, который час.
13.05; 18.30; 14.45; 19.50; 16.40; 0.00.
6. Переведите предложения на английский язык, обращая внимание на местоимения.
1. Это мои книги.
2. Те книги – мои.
3. Я советую тебе прочитать эти книги. Они очень интересные.
4. Он перевел эту книгу сам.
5. Дай ему эту книгу.
7. Измените глагол в предложении в зависимости от обстоятельства времени.
She (to meet) her friends. (often, yesterday, tomorrow, now, at 5 o’clock yesterday. just, by 7 o’clock yesterday)
8. Прочитайте и письменно переведите текст.
England
England, the largest country of the United Kingdom, is situated in the southern and middle part of the island of Great Britain. Its territory is 131, 000 square kilometers. The traditional division of England is into Northern England, Midlands and Southern England. England is mostly a lowland country. There are upland regions in the north and south-west., but the rest of the country is flat. There are no high mountains in England. The longest river is the Thames (354 km).
Western winds, that blow from the Atlantic Ocean, influence the climate. It is typically maritime with frequent rains, cloud-covered skies, continuous fogs and strong winds. The winter is extremely mild, frosts are rare. It seldom snows and the snow never lies for long. The summer is cool and rainy. On the whole the weather is very changeable not only day by day, but even hour by hour.
England is a parliamentary monarchy. The Queen (Elizabeth the Second) reigns but she does not rule. The state is governed by the government in the name of the Queen. The Parliament is held in the Palace of Westminster. It consists of two chambers: the House of Lords and the House of Commons.
The capital of England is London. Its population is about ten million people. London is the greatest port, the largest center of industry and the most important center of office employment by far. There are many places of interest in London. One of the tourists’ centers of the city is the Trafalgar Square with the Nelson’s Column. Hyde Park, St. Paul’s Cathedral, the British Museum are well-known all over the world and attract a lot of people.
For a long time Britain remained the “world workshop”, the first industrial country. England was the first country to start large-scale factory production. Many technical inventions of outstanding importance were put into use in England. Having accumulated colossal wealth, Britain became the “world’s banker”.
Today England is one of the leading countries in the world. Its main branches of industry are those working for export; such as chemical, artificial silk, motorcar, electronic equipment, etc. The technical level of these branches is very high.
There are a lot of cattle farms and sheep farms in England.* They produce different diary products. Still, only half of the food the country needs is produced by its agriculture.
People in England speak the English language, the most spoken language in the world. It is the official language of many countries such as the USA, Australia, and New Zealand. It is the language of the UNO. It is the language of science, literature and art. The symbol of England is rose.
9. Задайте все возможные вопросы к предложению, обозначенному в тексте звездочкой.
10. Письменно ответьте на вопросы к тексту.
1. What is a traditional geographical division of England?
2. Are there many places of interest in London? What are they?
3. Why is England one of the leading industrial countries in the world?
4. What language is spoken in England?
5. Whom is the state governed by?
Вариант 2
1. В каждой строчке найдите и выпишите слово, которое не рифмуется с остальными.
main say they dine
moon rule spoon book
brown sound out know
work girl fir walk
coin soil noise stop
cheer steer stare deer
2. Образуйте множественное число следующих существительных, если это возможно.
A city, a photo, a woman, kindness, a boy, a parrot, a bench, a cactus, a ring, snow, an ox, a knife, a forget-me-not, a businessman, a deer, a nose, a series, a toothbrush, a housewife, a strawberry, a box, a foot.
3. Составьте предложения из данных слов.
1. (we/enjoyed/very much/the party)
2. (passed/Ann/easily/the examination)
3. (every/do/day/thing/the same/we)
4. (don’t/I/this/very/like/much/picture)
5. (in her bag/the money/put/the woman)
6. (you/on television/watch/do/the news)
7. (my plan/carefully/I/explained)
8. (she/every/ten/day/smokes/cigarettes)
9. (a lot /housework/of/did/I/yesterday)
10. (we/at the concert/some friends/met)
4. Образуйте степени сравнения следующих прилагательных, если это возможно.
Tall, hot, difficult, square, bad, dirty, young, brilliant, middle, old-fashioned.
5. a) Напишите словами следующие числительные.
11; 192; 666; 1,538; 74,275,749; 26.514; 254,174,385; 2/3; 52; 24,821,972.
b) Переведите на английский язык следующие порядковые числительные.
Второй, пятнадцатый, сорок шестой, тридцатый, одна тысяча двести восемьдесят пятый.
c) Напишите словами следующие даты.
14 октября 1763 года, 24 июля 2004 года, 31 сентября 1803 года, 3 мая 2000 года, дату Вашего рождения.
d) Напишите словами, который час.
12.00; 17.04; 9.55; 11.25; 22.50; 16.30.
6. Переведите предложения на английский язык, обращая внимание на местоимения.
1. Это ее картины.
2. Те картины – ее.
3. Я советую тебе сходить на эту выставку и посмотреть ее картины. Они очень необычные.
4. Она нарисовала эту картину сама.
5. Покажи им эти картины.
7. Измените глагол в предложении в зависимости от обстоятельства времени.
He (to go) there. (every day, yesterday, tomorrow, now, when I met him, already, by this time yesterday)
8. Прочитайте и письменно переведите текст.
Scotland
Although Scotland takes up one third of the territory of the British Isles, its population is not very big, a little over five million people. It’s the most northern part of the island of Great Britain. Great parts of the land, especially moorlands are not inhabited at all. Scotland is divided into three regions: the Highlands, which is the most northern area with a harsh climate, the Lowlands, which is the most industrial region, the Southern Uplands with hills which border on England.
The Highlands of Scotland are among the oldest mountains in the world. Many valleys between the hills are filled with lakes, called lochs. The best known is Loch – Ness, 200 meters deep, where as some people think a large monster lives The most important city here is Aberdeen which is the oil center of Scotland, connected with oil deposits in the North Sea.
Two third of the population of Scotland is concentrated in the lowlands.* The two biggest cities are Glasgow (means a green nice place in Gaelic) and Edinburgh. Glasgow is known for its shipbuilding, iron and steel industries, heavy and light engineering, coalmining, and textiles. It’s the biggest industrial city and an important part of the United Kingdom. But it’s a grim city because of the dark Victorian buildings and houses, many of which are not suitable for living and need repairing or rebuilding.
Edinburgh has been the capital of Scotland since the 15th century. It’s the heart of the nation. It’s a banking and insurance center. The University of Edinburgh is very famous. It was founded in 1512. Edinburgh is a cultural center of Scotland. It’s associated with the names of George Gordon Byron and Walter Scott, Robert Louis Stevenson, Robert Burns and Arthur Conan Doyle. It’s also associated with the international Edinburgh Festival of Music and Drama, which has been held annually here since 1947.
Many people in Scotland have name McDonald or McRenzic. “Mac” means “son of” and people with this name usually feel they belong to the same family or clan. One of the things that people associate with Scotland is the kilt. The kilt is a relic of the time when a clan system existed in the Highlands. Each clan has its own tartan and since the first international gathering of the clans in 1972 many people have become interested in traditional form of the Scottish dress.
9. Задайте все возможные вопросы к предложению, обозначенному в тексте звездочкой.
10. Письменно ответьте на вопросы к тексту.
1. What parts is Scotland geographically divided into?
2. Why is Glasgow a grim city? Are there such cities in Russia?
3. What is Scotland famous for?
4. How deep is Loch-Ness? Why is it so famous?
5. What do the words “Mac” and “Loch” mean in Gaelic?
Вариант 3
1. В каждой строчке найдите и выпишите слово, которое не рифмуется с остальными.
gay fail bite great
sour power hour hair
dare deer fare parents
leer fewer curable duration
deer dear here there
tourist sour fluent moor
2. Образуйте множественное число следующих существительных, если это возможно.
A story, a piano, a child, courage, a toy, a desk, a brush, a stimulus, a flower, money, a tooth, a wolf, a face-lift, a gentleman, a fish, a tune, a crossroads, a watch, a loaf, a body, a bus, a mongoose.
3. Составьте предложения из данных слов.
1. (you/the same/wear/clothes/day/every)
2. (I/want to speak/fluently/English)
3. (to work/every morning/George/walks)
4. (at the party/we/early/arrived)
5. (didn’t/yesterday/go/I/to work)
6. (they/since 1986/have lived/here)
7. (goes/every year/to Italy/Jill)
8. (did/to the cinema/go/last night/you?)
9. (in London/Alice/in 1986/was born)
10. (I/in bed/this morning/my breakfast/had)
4. Образуйте степени сравнения следующих прилагательных, если это возможно.
Large, sad, important, dead, little, dry, cheap, remarkable, vacant, high-flown.
5. a) Напишите словами следующие числительные.
15; 364; 777; 1,836; 92,272,618; 52.830; 351,573,946; 6/8; 33; 55,343,675.
b) Переведите на английский язык следующие порядковые числительные.
Третий, восемнадцатый, шестьдесят четвертый, девяностый, две тысячи тридцать второй.
c) Напишите словами следующие даты.
16 апреля 1865 года, 5 марта 2001 года, 20 ноября 1602 года, 31 августа 1900 года, дату Вашего рождения.
d) Напишите словами, который час.
17.48; 14.12; 17.55; 10.30; 22.00; 13.57.
6. Переведите предложения на английский язык, обращая внимание на местоимения.
1. Это их цветы.
2. Те цветы – их.
3. Я ходил в их сад посмотреть на цветы. Они очень красивые.
4. Они вырастили эти цветы сами.
5. Подари ей эти цветы.
7. Измените глагол в предложении в зависимости от обстоятельства времени.
He (to work) at the office. (every day, yesterday, tomorrow, right now, at 1 p. m. yesterday, never, by 4 o’clock yesterday)
8. Прочитайте и письменно переведите текст.
Wales
Wales is a country in the west of Great Britain; it has an area of 20,760 square kilometers and a population of about 1 million people.
On the north, south and west Wales is bounded by water and on the east - by English counties. Its surface is largely mountainous reaching 3500 feet in Snowdon, the highest point in southern Britain. 5 percent of Wales is covered by forest, and much of the country is pasture – land for sheep and cattle. There are a lot of lakes in Wales; because of the mountainous nature of the country and its moist climate its vegetation is rich and green.*
Traditionally Wales is divided into North Wales and South Wales. North Wales is mountainous and its poor land is only good for sheep – farming or growing pinewoods. The sheep provide wool for local weaving industries, and the wool is used for beautiful handmade furniture. The north of the country has Snowdonia and could be said to have tourism as the chief industry. South Wales is highly industrialized, with a great coal – field and large iron– and steelworks, chemical plants. There are big ports there.
The capital of the country is Cardiff. Financially, industrially and commercially Cardiff is the most important city in Wales. There persists an idea that Cardiff is dirty because it’s a coal town. But the city’s civic center is sparkling clean. The National Museum of Wales, the Law Courts and the City Hall form one of the most impressive centers in the United Kingdom. Other big cities are Swansea, Carmarther, Cardigan, Newport are also known as big ports.
Wales was invaded by the Celts in about the 6th century and today Welsh population is almost a separate nation, with its own language, music and Celtic culture. English is also spoken there. The Welsh people are not very tall, strong and dark-haired. They have a reputation of good fighters, whose national pride and love of arts have been fed up by their mystic Druid legends.
In the past the Welsh language was not encouraged by the British authorities. Children who spoke Welsh at schools were punished. But today many official documents are in English and Welsh. People can enjoy special TV and radio programs in Welsh.
Wales was invaded many times and resisted the conquerors. Under Henry VIII England and Wales were united (1536). Today Wales is one of the countries of the United Kingdom, which politically is a parliamentary monarchy. According to the old tradition the oldest son of the ruler has usually been designated the Prince of Wales.
9. Задайте все возможные вопросы к предложению, обозначенному в тексте звездочкой.
10. Письменно ответьте на вопросы к тексту.
1. What languages are spoken in Wales?
2. Why is vegetation in Wales rich and green?
3. What reputation do the Welsh people have?
4. Is Wales a mountainous country?
5. Who invaded Wales in the 6th century?
задание 2
Вариант 1
1. Найдите и выпишите из трех слов, находящихся справа то, которое произносится как слово слева.
bear beer bare buyer
caught cord court coat
fair fare fear fire
flour flare flower floor
groan groin growing grown
2. Измените глагол в предложении в зависимости от обстоятельства времени (пассивный залог). Напишите предложения. Переведите их на русский язык.
The work is done every day (right now, already, yesterday, when he came, tomorrow).
3. Распределите следующие слова по частям речи:
City, dominate, eleventh, middle, contain, main, unpopular, painting, attract, belief.
4. Переведите предложения на английский язык. Укажите тип условного предложения.
1. Если бы я пообедала, я не была бы сейчас голодна.
2. Я не знаю, когда придет мама с работы. Но если она придет с работы до девяти часов вечера, я попрошу ее позвонить вам.
3. Если он поправится, он придет завтра в школу.
4. Если бы вчера отправили телеграмму, родители бы сегодня получили ее.
5. Он пришел бы, если бы его пригласили.
6. Если вы придете в 5 часов, я буду дома.
7. Если бы ты вышла пораньше, ты бы не опоздала.
8. Я бы остался здесь подольше, если бы мог.
9. Что бы вы делали, если бы у вас был миллион долларов?
10. Если ты не скажешь мне правду, я рассержусь.
5. Преобразуйте предложения с косвенной речью в предложения с прямой речью.
1. Mary said, “I want some milk.”
2. Mr. Smith said, “I remember you.”
3. The mailman said, “There aren’t any letters today.”
4. Dick said, “I have bought a new car this week.”
5. Mr. Wilson said, “I’m reading an interesting novel.”
6. Прочитайте и письменно переведите текст по Вашей специальности.
Вариант 2
1. Найдите и выпишите из трех слов, находящихся справа то, которое произносится как слово слева.
peace pies peas piece
pear peer pier pair
road wrote rude rode
sail seal sell sale
sent scent send saint
2. Измените глагол в предложении в зависимости от обстоятельства времени (пассивный залог). Напишите предложения. Переведите их на русский язык.
The business letters are received every day (right now, already, yesterday, when he came, tomorrow).
3. Распределите следующие слова по частям речи:
Instance, develop, fifth, highest, worker, profitable, well, discover, solution, top.
4. Переведите предложения на английский язык. Укажите тип условного предложения.
1. Если бы вчера вы приняли эти лекарства, то сегодня вы чувствовали бы себя лучше.
2. Если ты позвонишь мне, мы договоримся о встрече.
3. Если ты встретишь его, то передавай ему привет от меня.
4. Если бы не болезнь ребенка, он поехал бы с нами.
5. Если я закончу университет, то стану преподавателем или переводчиком.
6. Если бы я был на твоем месте, я знал бы, что делать.
7. Она бы никогда не опаздывала, если бы жила близко от института, а она живет очень далеко.
8. Если бы он был более свободен, он часто ходил бы в театр.
9. Если бы я была менее занята в субботу, я пошла бы в кино.
10. Если лето будет жарким, то я не останусь в городе.
5. Преобразуйте предложения с косвенной речью в предложения с прямой речью.
1. Ann asked, “Have you seen this film?”
2. Dick asked, “Are you a student?”
3. John said, “Do you speak Japanese?”
4. Miss Dean asked, “Is there anybody here?”
5. John said, “Is dinner ready?”
6. Прочитайте и письменно переведите текст по Вашей специальности.
Вариант 3
1. Найдите и выпишите из трех слов, находящихся справа то, которое произносится как слово слева.
sweet sweat suite suit
weak wake week wick
whole whale hole wall
plane plan plume plain
their there then though
2. Измените глагол в предложении в зависимости от обстоятельства времени (пассивный залог). Напишите предложения. Переведите их на русский язык.
The books are read every day (right now, already, yesterday, when he came, tomorrow).
3. Распределите следующие слова по частям речи:
Weight, tall, movement, direct, difficult, eleventh, worse, grow, settlement, adviser.
4. Переведите предложения на английский язык. Укажите тип условного предложения.
1. Я позвоню ему, если узнаю номер его телефона.
2. Я бы позвонил ему сейчас, если бы знал номер его телефона.
3. Я бы зашел к нему на следующей неделе, если бы у меня было свободное время.
4. Я бы зашел к нему на прошлой неделе, если бы у меня было свободное время.
5. Я зайду к нему, если у меня будет свободное время.
6. Если бы вы работали больше в прошлом году, вы бы не сделали столько ошибок.
7. Если бы я знал название этой книги раньше, я бы взял ее в библиотеке.
8. Если он не будет заниматься, он не сдаст вступительный экзамен.
9. Если он обдумает мое предложение как следует, он примет его.
10. Если бы мы не взяли такси, мы бы опоздали на поезд.
5. Преобразуйте предложения с косвенной речью в предложения с прямой речью.
1. “Where is the teacher?” Mary asked me.
2. “What time do you have your dinner?” Mr. Tyler asked his friend.
3. Bob asked Charles, “Why aren’t you in school?”
4. “Who is your favorite actor?” Betty asked Ann.
5. Tom said to me, “Whose camera did you use?”
6. Прочитайте и письменно переведите текст по Вашей специальности.
Перечень текстов,
выносимых на экзамен
Вариант 1
Cordless Telephones
Cordless telephones are one of those minor miracles of modern life - with a cordless phone, you can talk on the phone while moving freely about your house or in your yard. Long before cell phones became so cheap that anyone could afford one, cordless phones gave everyone the freedom to walk and talk within the privacy of their own homes. A cordless telephone is basically a combination telephone and radio transmitter/receiver. A cordless phone has two major parts: base and handset.
Base
The base unit of the cordless phone is plugged into the telephone jack on your wall. If you open up the base and expose the circuit board, you see several components that carry out the functions of the base:
· phone line interface - receives and sends telephone signals through the phone line
· radio
· amplifies signals to and from phone-line interface, user controls and speaker phone (if present)
· broadcasts and receives radio signals to and from the handset
· power - supplies low voltage power to the circuits and recharges the battery of the handset
Phone Line Interface
Phone line interface components do two things. First, they send the ringer signal to the bell (if it's on the base) or to the radio components for broadcast to the handset. This lets you know that you have an incoming call. Second, they receive and send small changes in the phone line's electrical current to and from the radio components of the base. When you talk, you cause small changes in the electrical current of the phone line, and these changes get sent to your caller. The same happens when the caller talks to you.
Radio Components
The radio components receive the electrical signals from the phone line interface and user controls (keypads, buttons). The radio components convert the signals to radio waves and broadcast them via the antenna. Radio components use quartz crystals to set the radio frequencies for sending and receiving. There are two quartz crystals, one for sending signals and one for receiving signals. Remember that the base and handset operate on a frequency pair that allows you to talk and listen at the same time (duplex). The radio components include an audio amplifier that increases the strength of the incoming electrical signals.
Power Components
A DC power cube transformer supplies the low voltage required by the electrical components on the circuit board. The power components on the circuit board work with the power cube to supply electrical current to re-charge the battery of the handset.
In addition to the above components, some bases also have audio amplifiers to drive speakers for speaker phone features, keypads for dialing, liquid crystal displays (LCDs) for caller ID, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) for power/charging indicators, and solid state memory for answering machine or call-back features.
Handset
You can carry the handset with you throughout the house or outside within the range of the base transmitter. The handset has all of the equipment of a standard telephone (speaker, microphone, dialing keypad), plus the equipment of an FM radio transmitter/receiver. When you open up the handset, you can see these components.
Speaker
The speaker receives the electrical signals from the audio amplifier in the radio components and converts them into sound. When you remove the cover from the speaker, you see a large round permanent magnet with a hole in the middle and a deep groove surrounding the hole. Within this deep groove is a coil of fine copper wire that is attached to a thin plastic membrane. The plastic membrane covers the magnet and coil.
Microphone
The microphone changes the sound waves from your voice into electrical signals that are sent to the audio amplifier of the radio components. A microphone is essentially a speaker that works in reverse. When sound waves from your voice move the membrane, they make tiny electric currents either by moving a coil of wire within a magnet or by compressing the membrane against carbon dust.
Keypad
The keypad allows you to dial a number. It transfers the pressure from your fingertip on the appropriate key into an electrical signal that it sends to the radio components. Below the rubber keypad is a circuit board with black conductive material under each button. The keypad works like a remote control. When you press a button, it makes a contact with the black material and changes its electrical conductance. The conductance sends an electrical signal to the radio components indicating that you have selected that number.
Buzzer or Ringer
When the radio components of the handset receive the ringer signal from the base, they send electrical signals to the buzzer. The buzzer changes those electrical signals into sound much like the speaker does. You hear the buzzer sound and know that someone is calling you. In some phones, the speaker is used to make the ringer sound and there is no need for a separate ringer.
Radio Components
The radio components of the handset are like those of the base - they convert electrical signals from the microphone into FM radio signals and broadcast them at the same frequency as the receiving crystal of the base unit. The radio components also receive radio signals at the same frequency as the broadcasting crystal from the base, convert them to electrical signals and send them to the speaker and/or buzzer (ringer).
Battery
The handset's battery supplies the power for all of the electrical components in the handset. All cordless phone handsets have a rechargeable battery (nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal hydride or lithium). When the battery runs low, an indicator light on the handset usually lights up or flashes. In some phones, a "beeping" sound may also indicate a low battery. You then recharge the battery on the base of the cordless phone.
The GE cordless phone that we dissected was from 1993. Modern cordless phones have the same functions and much of the same hardware. However, many of the electronic circuits that were once achieved with transistors, resistors and capacitors have been replaced with integrated circuits. This advancement allows the handset to be either smaller with the same functions or the same size with more functions.
In summary, a cordless phone is basically a combination of a telephone and an FM radio transmitter/receiver. Because it is a radio transmitter, it broadcasts signals over the open airways rather than specifically between the base and handset.
Вариант 2
UNEMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
Unemployment can be divided into three basic types: frictional, structural and cyclical. Frictional unemployment as short – term unemployment that results from such factors as individuals voluntary switching jobs, fired employees seeking reemployment, employees seeking their first job and the seasonal pattern of employment in such industries as construction and recreation.
Structural unemployment refers to long – term unemployment caused by changes in consumer demand and changes in technology. These types of changes cause some workers to become unemployed for long periods of time or permanently. Because of changes in the nature of the economy, the talents of some workers become obsolete. Structural unemployment is not caused by general business fluctuations, nor does it involve the normal movement of workers from one ob to another.
Cyclical unemployment refers to unemployment caused by business fluctuations. This situation occurs when the economy is in recession or depression and aggregate demand is insufficient to maintain full employment. When the overall level of business activity decreases, cyclical unemployment increases. Conversely, when overall business activity picks up, cyclical unemployment drops. A prominent economist, Arthur Okun, quantified the relationship between unemployment and GDP. This relationship, called Okun’s law, indicates that the rate of unemployment declines by one percentage point for every two-percentage points of increase in the rate of economic growth.
Full employment does not mean zero unemployment. Frictional and structural unemployment are unavoidable, thus the definition of full employment allows for less than 100% employment. One way to explain full employment is to say that it is achieved when cyclical unemployment is zero. But any definition of full employment is going to change as the demographics of the labor force change, institutional factors change, and the economy evolves.
Employment report. The employment report is the single most important data series released by the government to both the bond and stock markets because it is both timely and a comprehensive measure of economic activity. Included in the report is the unemployment rate, which is determined by the Bureau of Labor Statistics by conducting a nationwide random survey of 60,000 households per month. The unemployment report is released on the first Friday of the month at http://stats. bls. gov.
Although the unemployment rate is the most widely reported statistics, this rate is a lagging indicator of the state of the economy. Instead, the market focuses upon the change in nonfarm payrolls, hours worked, and hourly pay. These numbers help predict whether the economy is strengthening, and if labor costs are accelerating or moderating.
The payroll survey collects data on jobs, hourly wages and the number of hours in the workweek from about 400,000 companies covering nearly 50 industries. The total change in payroll reflects economic activity. A big jump means companies are hiring in response to rising sales. A drop implies that companies are reducing their labor force in response to weakening sales.
In the recent past the economic consensus was that at unemployment levels of less than about 6%, inflation was bound to accelerate. Yet joblessness had been 5% or less for 32 straight months by the end of 1999, and inflation had declined steadily through the 1990s, hitting a 12 – year low in 1998. the Fed has expressed its concern about tight labor markets by raising interest rates three times in 1999 and again in February, March and May of 2000. although advances in information technology and the expanded use of the Internet may continue to stimulate efficiencies and lower costs, productivity growth must continue to increase rapidly to prevent unit labor costs from accelerating and heightening fears of inflation.
Вариант 3
Lithium-ion Batteries
Lithium-ion batteries are incredibly popular these days. You can find them in laptops, PDAs, cell phones and iPods. They're so common because, they're some of the most energetic rechargeable batteries available.
Lithium-ion batteries have also been in the news lately. That’s because these batteries have the ability to burst into flames occasionally. It's not very common -- just two or three battery packs per million have a problem -- but when it happens, it's extreme. In some situations, the failure rate can rise, and when that happens you end up with a worldwide battery recall that can cost manufacturers millions of dollars.
So the question is, what makes these batteries so energetic and so popular? How do they burst into flame? And is there anything you can do to prevent the problem or help your batteries last longer? In this article, we'll answer these questions and more.
Lithium-ion batteries are popular because they have a number of important advantages over competing technologies:
· They're generally much lighter than other types of rechargeable batteries of the same size. The electrodes of a lithium-ion battery are made of lightweight lithium and carbon. Lithium is also a highly reactive element, meaning that a lot of energy can be stored in its atomic bonds. This translates into a very high energy density for lithium-ion batteries.
Here is a way to get a perspective on the energy density. A typical lithium-ion battery can store 150 watt-hours of electricity in 1 kilogram of battery. A NiMH (nickel-metal hydride) battery pack can store perhaps 100 watt-hours per kilogram, although 60 to 70 watt-hours might be more typical. A lead-acid battery can store only 25 watt-hours per kilogram. Using lead-acid technology, it takes 6 kilograms to store the same amount of energy that a 1 kilogram lithium-ion battery can handle. That's a huge difference.
· They hold their charge. A lithium-ion battery pack loses only about 5 percent of its charge per month, compared to a 20 percent loss per month for NiMH batteries.
· They have no memory effect, which means that you do not have to completely discharge them before recharging, as with some other battery chemistries.
· Lithium-ion batteries can handle hundreds of charge/discharge cycles.
That is not to say that lithium-ion batteries are flawless. They have a few disadvantages as well:
· They start degrading as soon as they leave the factory. They will only last two or three years from the date of manufacture whether you use them or not.
· They are extremely sensitive to high temperatures. Heat causes lithium-ion battery packs to degrade much faster than they normally would.
· If you completely discharge a lithium-ion battery, it is ruined.
· A lithium-ion battery pack must have an on-board computer to manage the battery. This makes them even more expensive than they already are.
· There is a small chance that, if a lithium-ion battery pack fails, it will burst into flame.
Many of these characteristics can be understood by looking at the chemistry inside a lithium-ion cell. We'll look at this next.
Inside a Lithium-ion Battery Pack and Cell
Lithium-ion battery packs come in all shapes and sizes, but they all look about the same on the inside. If you were to take apart a laptop battery pack (something that we DO NOT recommend because of the possibility of shorting out a battery and starting a fire) you would find the following:
· The lithium-ion cells can be either cylindrical batteries that look almost identical to AA cells, or they can be prismatic, which means they are square or rectangular
The computer, which comprises:
· One or more temperature sensors to monitor the battery temperature
· A voltage converter and regulator circuit to maintain safe levels of voltage and current
· A shielded notebook connector that lets power and information flow in and out of the battery pack
· A voltage tap, which monitors the energy capacity of individual cells in the battery pack
· A battery charge state monitor, which is a small computer that handles the whole charging process to make sure the batteries charge as quickly and fully as possible.
If the battery pack gets too hot during charging or use, the computer will shut down the flow of power to try to cool things down. If you leave your laptop in an extremely hot car and try to use the laptop, this computer may prevent you from powering up until things cool off. If the cells ever become completely discharged, the battery pack will shut down because the cells are ruined. It may also keep track of the number of charge/discharge cycles and send out information so the laptop's battery meter can tell you how much charge is left in the battery.
It's a pretty sophisticated little computer, and it draws power from the batteries. This power draw is one reason why lithium-ion batteries lose 5 percent of their power every month when sitting idle.
Lithium-ion Cells
As with most batteries you have an outer case made of metal. The use of metal is particularly important here because the battery is pressurized. This metal case has some kind of pressure-sensitive vent hole. If the battery ever gets so hot that it risks exploding from over-pressure, this vent will release the extra pressure. The battery will probably be useless afterwards, so this is something to avoid. The vent is strictly there as a safety measure. So is the Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) switch, a device that is supposed to keep the battery from overheating.
This metal case holds a long spiral comprising three thin sheets pressed together:
· A Positive electrode
· A Negative electrode
· A separator
Inside the case these sheets are submerged in an organic solvent that acts as the electrolyte. Ether is one common solvent.
The separator is a very thin sheet of microperforated plastic. As the name implies, it separates the positive and negative electrodes while allowing ions to pass through.
The positive electrode is made of Lithium cobalt oxide, or LiCoO2. The negative electrode is made of carbon. When the battery charges, ions of lithium move through the electrolyte from the positive electrode to the negative electrode and attach to the carbon. During discharge, the lithium ions move back to the LiCoO2 from the carbon.
The movement of these lithium ions happens at a fairly high voltage, so each cell produces 3.7 volts. This is much higher than the 1.5 volts typical of a normal AA alkaline cell that you buy at the supermarket and helps make lithium-ion batteries more compact in small devices like cell phones. See How Batteries Work for details on different battery chemistries.
We'll look at how to prolong the life of a lithium-ion battery and explore why they can explode next.
Lithium-ion Battery Life and Death
Lithium-ion battery packs are expensive, so if you want to make yours to last longer, here are some things to keep in mind:
· Lithium ion chemistry prefers partial discharge to deep discharge, so it's best to avoid taking the battery all the way down to zero. Since lithium-ion chemistry does not have a "memory", you do not harm the battery pack with a partial discharge. If the voltage of a lithium-ion cell drops below a certain level, it's ruined.
· Lithium-ion batteries age. They only last two to three years, even if they are sitting on a shelf unused. So do not "avoid using" the battery with the thought that the battery pack will last five years. It won't. Also, if you are buying a new battery pack, you want to make sure it really is new. If it has been sitting on a shelf in the store for a year, it won't last very long. Manufacturing dates are important.
· Avoid heat, which degrades the batteries.
Exploding Batteries
Now that we know how to keep lithium-ion batteries working longer, let's look at why they can explode.
If the battery gets hot enough to ignite the electrolyte, you are going to get a fire. There are video clips and photos on the Web that show just how serious these fires can be. The CBC article,"Summer of the Exploding Laptop," rounds up several of these incidents.
When a fire like this happens, it is usually caused by an internal short in the battery. Recall from the previous section that lithium-ion cells contain a separator sheet that keeps the positive and negative electrodes apart. If that sheet gets punctured and the electrodes touch, the battery heats up very quickly. You may have experienced the kind of heat a battery can produce if you have ever put a normal 9-volt battery in your pocket. It a coin shorts across the two terminals, the battery gets quite hot.
In a separator failure, that same kind of short happens inside the lithium-ion battery. Since lithium-ion batteries are so energetic, they get very hot. The heat causes the battery to vent the organic solvent used as an electrolyte, and the heat (or a nearby spark) can light it. Once that happens inside one of the cells, the heat of the fire cascades to the other cells and the whole pack goes up in flames.
It is important to note that fires are very rare. Still, it only takes a couple of fires and a little media coverage to prompt a recall.
9. Учебно-методическое и информационное обеспечение учебной дисциплины
9.1. Основная литература
№ п/п | Наименование | Автор(ы) | Год и место издания | Используется при изучении разделов | Семестр | |
1 | 1. Английский шаг за шагом | ЗАО "РОСМЭН-ПРЕСС, 2008 | I-II | 2 |
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2 | Грамматика: Сборник упражнений - 7-е изд. | Голицинский, Ю. Б. | Спб: КАРО, 2010. | I-II | 2 |
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9.2. Дополнительная литература
№ п/п | Наименование | Автор(ы) | Год и место издания | Используется при изучении разделов | Семестр | |
1 | Деловой английский. English for Business. Часть 1-2. Учебник английского языка | Автор-сост. , , . | М.: Вече, 2000. | На протяжении изучения всех разделов материала. | 2 |
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2 | Деловой английский. Englih for Business. Часть 3. Учебник английского языка | Авт.-сост. , , . | M.: Вече, 2000. | На протяжении изучения всех разделов материала. | 2 |
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Учебник английского языка для делового общения. Ч. 1-6 | , и др. | М.: Филология,1998. | На протяжении изучения всех разделов материала. | 2 |
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9.3. Базы данных, информационно-справочные и поисковые системы:
1. English law - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia // en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ English_law
2. Thirst for Justice - English // www. prolognet. qc. ca/clyde/eng. htm
3. Beliefs about Social Justice in English Education // www. ncte. org/cee/ positions/socialjustice
10. Материально-техническое обеспечение учебной дисциплины
Требования к аудиториям (помещениям, кабинетам) для проведения занятий с указаниями соответствующего оснащения:
Особое значение для решения задач курса имеет комплексное применение технических средств обучения (ТСО) и новых образовательных технологий (НОТ). Использование видео – и аудиоматериалов создает условия и максимальную наглядность для практического овладения английским языком и самостоятельной работы студентов в аудитории и дома, стимулирует нестандартные формы учебного процесса. Внедрение НОТ в практику преподавания английского языка представляется в настоящее время одним из важнейших аспектов совершенствования учебного процесса, обогащения арсенала методических средств и приемов. Самостоятельная работа студентов с ТСО и НОТ позволяет расширить выбор аутентичных материалов и повышает эффективность обучения.
Требования к программному обеспечению при прохождении учебной дисциплины:
При прохождении курса иностранного языка необходимо использовать программно-аппаратный комплекс - технических средств обучения (ТСО), как-то видео – и аудиоматериалов, которые должны сочетать в себе простоту инсталляции с полным набором функций для процесса обучения, приспособленных на преподавателей, а не на технических специалистов. Комплекс должен обеспечивать преподавателя набором мощных функций для изучения материала при помощи технических средств таких, как CD-ROM привод, видеомагнитофон, TV, Internet и другие приложения
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