5. Archeologists continue searching for buried Egyptian treasures (keep on / do away with).
Ex. 9. Pick out the synonym.
1. The campers heard a strange rustling in the trees.
a) stealing b) pillaging c) movement d) fight
2. The hotel manager became suspicious of those people who were loitering in the lobby.
a) bustling b) sleeping c) meddling d) loafing
As a result of the accident, the police revoked his driver license.a) reconsidered b) exercised c) investigated d) canceled
The question was discarded because it was ambiguous.a) vague b) biased c) eloquent d) insatiated
Most students abhor lengthy exams at the end of the year.a) detest b) regret c) nullify d) negate
Ex. 10. Choose the appropriate word.
1. Scientists are trying to (device/ devise) an inexpensive substitute for gasoline.
2. Melanie said that she would arrive (later / latter) than the rest of us.
3. Even though Marlon Brando had won an Oscar, he refused to (except/ accept) it at the presentation ceremonies.
4. Mitzi didn’t (lose/ loose) any time in applying for the teaching position in maths.
5. On Halloween night, most children dress in (customs/ costumes) and go from house to house asking for teats.
Ex. 11. Choose the right form in parentheses
1. All budget proposals had to be submitted by last Friday. (turned in\ drawn up).
2. The mountain climbers grasped the rope tightly to avoid falling (got by\ held on to).
3. Helen is leaving Salt Lake City for good. ( to get a better chance\ forever).
4. The intense heat in the street caused Robin to faint ( pass out\ pick out).
5. My mother distributed candy to the children last Halloween (pointed out\ handed out).
Ex. 12. Replace the underlined words with more precise words.
HURRICANES HITS CENTRAL AMERICA
Hurricane Joan left at least 11 people dead in Venezuela and then forced tens of thousands of people to run for safety as it closed in on Central America with strong rain and winds.
Mudslides and heavy rains ruined the poorest neighborhoods of Caracas, Venezuela. The mud covered wooden huts built on cliffs overlooking the capital. Rescue workers worked all night.
According to the National Hurricane Center in Florida, the storm’s slow pace makes it difficult to predict.
Nicaragua declared a state of alert and closed schools nationwide as the slow-moving storm waited in the Caribbean.
More than 37,000 people, fearing floods and mudslides, ran from coastal areas of Nicaragua and Costa Rica.
In Costa Rica the National Emergency Council said at least 30,000 people were removed from coastal areas southeast of the capital of San Jose.
(devastated, labored, evacuated, leisurely, fled, pounding, ravages, scurry, engulfed, lurked)
Ex. 13. Find synonyms & antonyms in the following sentences.
1.As Phil and Nancy approached the forest, the saw a path leading into the woods.
2.The trees were dripping with moisture, and soon Phil and Nancy’s dry clothes were soaked.
3.Within the forest the upper branches kept the light from reaching the lower levels.
4.As they walked along the muddy path, Phil and Nancy saw rotting leaves on the trail.
5.They continued walking along the trail and then halted suddenly in their tracks.
6.The low sound of a soft chirping had caused them to stop.
7.As they moved quietly through the forest, they heard a monkey loudly calling to other monkeys.
8.The younger monkeys were eating leaves of bamboo trees while older ones watched.
9.One monkey was curious and looked at Phil and Nancy, but others were indifferent.
Ex. 14. Select the phrase that correctly defines the idiom.
1. “I hate to let the cat out of the bag,” said Amy, “but I have something to tell you”
a) tell a secret b) release an animal
2. “Don wants to send you off on a wild-goose chase to keep you busy.”
a) send on a pointless trip b) send out hunting
3. “I bit his head off when he said that,” she continued.
a) bit him in the face b) scolded him
4. “He’s always trying to put me down,” said Charlie.
a) says bad things about me b) makes me sit
Ex. 15. Find the synonyms.
1. It is inevitable that the smaller company should merge with the larger.
a) urgent b) unavoidable c) crucial d) vague
2. Her replies were inconsistent with her previous testimony.
a) contradicted c) incorporated
b) were compatible with d) enhanced
3. The densely populated area was a breeding place for infectious diseases.
a) meagerly b) improperly c) sparsely d) heavily
4. The ancient Greek temple is perched on the top of Athene’s highest hill.
a) paramount b) seen c) viewed d) located
5. An unsuccessful attempt was made to salvage the yacht and its contents.
a) surface b) Submerge c) save d) submit
6. His final remarks had a tremendous impact on the audience.
a) effect b) collision c) uplift d) uproar
7. Monica had to exercise great care at this crucial stage of her experiment.
a) critical b) scientific c) final d) initial
8. Bulat was a recipient of the president’s scholarship for fine arts.
a) creator b) donor c) receiver d) investigator
9. A feeling of sadness permeated the atmosphere.
a) quieted b) pervaded c) stilled d) stifled
10. Her only chance to elude her pursuer was to mingle with the crowd.
a) fiance b) captor c) scholar d) follower
Ex. 16. Pick out the correct word.
1. After dieting, Marcy found that her clothes had become so loose/ lose that she had to buy a new wardrobe.
2. If Don doesn’t practice his polo more, he may loose/ lose the match.
3. The night was so quite/ quiet/ quite that you could hear the breeze blowing.
4. Louise is quite/ quite/ quit capable of taking over the household chores while her mother is away.
5. Mark quiet/ quite/ quit smoking on his doctor’s advice.
Ex. 17. Choose the right form in parentheses
1. The mountain climbers found their (descent/ decent) more hazardous than their ascent.
2. When one appears in court, one must wear (descent/ decent) clothing.
3. The demand for funds was in (access/ excess) of the actual need.
4. Melanie was so (credible/ credulous) that she will accept any excuse you offer.
5. His explanation of the rescue at sea seemed (credible/ credulous).
6. Cinthia’s nervousness (distracted/ detracted) from her singing.
7. Sean was so (intelligible/ intelligent) that he received good grades without ever having to study.
8. Before going to Mexico, Phil took an intense/ intensive course in Spanish.
Ex. 18. Choose the word which would best keep the meaning of the sentence.
1. Numbing terror filled their brains as they witnessed the explosions.
a) torpid b) tantalizing c) paralyzing d) sentient
2. The slender boy scaled the wall like a lizard.
a) balanced b) crawled c) plastered d) climbed
3. After receiving the insulting letter, Ron became furious.
a) ghastly b) resented c) fulgent d) irate
4. A middle-aged woman of tremendous girth sat down beside the other patient in the waiting room.
a) prestige b) rotundity c) eloquence d) mirth
5. Scientists say that brown genes are dominant and blue ones are recessive.
a) controlling b) docile c) dormant d) doleful
6. Molly is always very impatient and can’t stand having to wait.
a) suffer b) hate c) bear d) torture
7. My hometown is not an exciting place. The nightlife there is very boring.
a) terrific b) amusing c) charming d) dull
8. The president’s personal papers should be kept separate from company business.
a) top secret b) private c) substantial d) essential
9. Every gasoline-generated engine must have a tank for fuel.
a) container b) driver c) motor d) garage
Ex. 19. Pick out the correct word.
1. After carrying her son from the car, the mother set/ sit him in his crib.
2. Bullfight fans sit/ set in the shade because it is cool.
3. Don’t sit/ set the chocolate near the oven or it will melt.
4. After swimming, Bob normally sits/ sets on the beach to dry off.
5. No sooner had they sit/ set the roast in the oven, than the electricity went out.
Ex. 20. Use either so or such in these sentences as appropriate.
1. The benefit was … great a success that the promoters decided to repeat it.
2. Jake was … a powerful swimmer that he always won the races.
3. The grass received … little water that it turned brown in the heat.
4. Mary has … exceptional abilities that everyone is jealous of her.
5. Judy worked … diligently that she received an increase in salary.
Ex. 21. Choose the word which would best keep the meaning of the sentence.
1. The groom’s hand caressed the soft mane of the horse.
a) provoked c) struck
b) combed d) fondled
2. His fidelity to the ill-fated project was commendable.
a) dedication c) fiendishness
b) treachery d) fierceness
3. Sally was mortified by her date’s unprecedented behaviour.
a) eradicated c) overjoyed
b) humiliated d) challenged
4. The spy used a fictitious name while dealing with the enemy.
a) funny c) dreary
b) false d) foreign
5. The young couple chose a secluded place for their picnic.
a) authentic c) isolated
b) sunny d) persistent
Ex. 22. Change the underlined word to incorporate two-word verbs.
1. The police are approaching the robbers’ hideout (close in on/ come down with)
2. Rita will accompany her sister to the Skating Palace on Saturday night (drop out of/ come along with)
3. Before making a decision on the project, the board of directors decided to discuss the matter (try out/ see about)
4. Many teenagers quit school before graduation and regret it later (check out of/ drop out off).
5. Thomas Jefferson was one of the men responsible for writing the Declaration of Independence (find out/ draw up).
Ex. 23. Choose the correct form of the participles.
1. The police towed away the (parking/ parked) cars because they were blocking the entrance.
2. The (imprisoned/ imprisoning) men were unhappy with their living conditions.
3. Dr. Harris told my uncle to elevate his (aching/ ached) foot.
4. Mary’s (cleaned/ cleaning) service comes every Wednesday.
5. The (blowing/ blown) wind of the hurricane damaged the waterfront property.
Ex. 24. Select the word that completes the meaning in each sentence.
1. The salesman said that regular use/usage of fertilizer would ensure a greener, healthier lawn.
2. Norm Crosby’s use/usage of English vocabulary in his comedy routine is hilarious.
3. Sue compares/contrasts her new school with the last one she had attended.
4. In his composition, Sean chose to compare/contrast life in a big city with that of a small town.
It was very considerable/considerate of Harry to send his hostess a bouquet of flowers.Ex. 25. Pick out the correct word.
1. The ice cream began to liquefy/ liquidate in the intense heat.
2. The foreign agents tried to liquefy/ liquidate the traitor before he passed the information to his contacts.
3. Thomas A. Edison, inventor of the phonograph, said that an idea was ninety-nine percent perspiration one percent inspiration/ aspiration.
4. To pronounce certain words, proper inspiration/ aspiration is necessary.
5. The ancient Egyptians’ observation/ observance of the heavenly bodies helped them know when to plant and harvest.
6. There will be numerous parades and displays of fireworks in observation/ observance of Independence Day.
7. The weightlifter raises/ rises the barbell over his head.
8. When oil and water mix, oil raises/ rises to the top.
9. The soldier rose/ raised the flag when he heard the bugle blow.
10. Prices have risen/ have raised more than ten percent in a very short time.
Ex. 26. Choose the word which best keep the meaning of the sentence.
1. The elegant decorations transformed the gym into a starlit ballroom.
a) reverted b) changed c) sustained d) interrupted
2. Ponce de Leon believed that the waters of the Fountain of Youth had the power to make one young.
a) stupefy b) rejuvenate c) ponder d) submerse
3. Allowing fields to lie fallow is one means of restoring fertility.
a) unplanted b) plowed c) watered d) seeded
4. The new building was to be octagonal in shape.
a) five sided b) six sided c) seven sided d) eight sided
5. The once beautiful flowers in the vase had withered.
a) wilted b) wandered c) wavered d) writhed
Ex. 27. Enrich your vocabulary learning the following adjectives.
1. Nice food is appetizing, delicious, tasty, luscious, yammy.
Nasty food is disgusting, foul, inedible, revolting, yacky
2. Journey can be boring, relaxing, eventful, nerve-racking, thrilling, smooth, dramatic, bumpy, turbulent.
3. A horse can look graceful, muscular, strong, sturdy, dainty.
4. A dog can be affectionate, aggressive, alert, fierce, loyal, savage, watchful, playful, obedient.
5. A cat can seem adventurous, aloof, contented, curious, lazy, timid, wild, mischievous.
Ex. 28. Supply suitable prepositions.
1. Make sure the label is properly attached … your suitcase.
2. Margot looks stunning dressed... black.
3. This PC is similar … the one we have in our office.
4. I’ve never been very keen … flying.
5. Anyone would feel nervous … having an operation.
6. Our daughter’s shy … meeting strangers.
7. Liza expects to be successful … anything she does.
8. It’s time she ceased to be so dependent … her parents.
9. You don’t get involved … that kind of business, do you?
10. We’re really indebted … you for all the help you’ve given us.
11. Kevin’s incapable … even driving a nail in straight.
12. Ron was convicted … burglary and sentenced to three years of prison.
13. I don’t think I’m very susceptible … advertising.
14. I’m afraid Jane is jealous … her younger sister.
15. The committee is composed mainly … local tradesmen.
16. It’s immaterial … me whether our neighbours approve or not.
Ex. 29. Fill in the blanks with the proper words.
1. … table tops mark easily. (Glass, Glassy)
2. She fixed me with a … stare. (glass, glassy)
3. How much would you have to pay for a … watch? (gold, golden)
4. Silence is … . (gold, golden)
5. We danced by the … light of the moon. (silver, silvery)
6. My mother has a lovely old … teapot. (silver, silvery)
7. There’s an old … wall at the end of the garden. (stone, stony)
8. It’s impossible to cultivate such … soil. (stone, stony)
9. … cutlery is very practical. (Steel, Steely)
10. Dr Andrews has such terrifying … blue eyes. (steel, steely)
11. I wouldn’t drink water that flows through … pipes. (lead, leaden)
12. Under a grey sky, the sea looked heavy and … . (lead, leaden)
13. Take a … cardigan with you in case it gets cold. (wool, woollen)
14. You might find one in a … shop (wool, woollen)
15. They specialize in … goods. (wool, woolen)
16. Use a … spoon if you want to stir the soup. (wood, wooden)
Ex. 30. Supply the right opposites
1. dry paint … paint
2. weak tea … tea
3. tender meat … meat
4. a living person a … person
5. a tall man a… man
6. a right answer a… answer
7. a thin ruler a … ruler
8. a generous person a … person
9. a perilous trick a … trick
10. a full glass an … glass
Ex. 31. Insert the proper adjectives in a comparative degree.
1. Elliot Chase is … anyone else at the top in his company. He wants success, fame, power, and he’ll have them all – he’s ruthless.
2. Miss, I’m sorry (I really don’t want to complain), but this veal chop is not very good – it’s … a piece of old shoe leather.
3. The person who does my income taxes every year isn’t always … she is fast; I’m looking for another one to go.
4. Our son’s table manners are … than his sister’s, but at least he washes his hands and face before he comes to the table.
5. I love peanuts, but the more I eat them the … I get; they’re also very fattening.
6. This guy finds that his water bed is … than the ordinary bed he used to have. He says his back aches every morning when he gets up.
7. Kids, please swim at this end of the pool – it’s …
8. Many people feel that men are … than women, but I don’t think so. Society just allows women to show their feelings more openly than it does mean.
9. Jessie finds religion is … to her now that it was when she was younger and interested only in having a good time.
10. As people grow older, they sometimes become … than they were and lose interest in life.
(emotional, shallow, cool, ambitious, tough, comfortable, exact, bad, important)
Ex. 32. Insert adjectives in a superlative degree.
1. At times that restaurant can be the best in town or … - it depends on the cook’s mood and how sober he is.
2. Even though the male lion is one of … animals on the plains of Africa, he is still called the King of the Jungle.
3. The cleverest salespeople in my company make the highest commissions; however, they’re not always … people in town.
4. The day that Chris entered prison for a crime he had never committed was … day of his long and eventful life. Fortunately, he was eventually found innocent and set free.
5. Kelly thinks she made one of … mistakes in her life when she got a divorce, and her former husband feels the same way.
6. Yes, Sir, there are other cellphones more expensive than this one, and we sell them, but the most expensive does not mean … . There is another reason you should buy this cellphone; it is manufactured in this country.
7. The pollution in our town is not …., and crime and corruption have become less serious problems; things are looking up (getting better).
8. Cigarettes are one of the … things for your health. You must give them up.
9. Yes, Chad may be one of the … artists in this studio, but he certainly isn’t one of the most productive.
10. Money is the … of a rich man’s worries (if he’s not losing it).
(bad, little, bright, good, honest, dangerous, grave, big, high, horrible)
Ex. 33. ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS (Degrees of Comparison; Comparative Constructions)
1. Nowadays Joe is eating more and exercising … than he used to.
a. little b. less c. the least
2. It’s not the … place to live if you want a quiet life.
a. better b. good c. best
3. Ann was so …, that she couldn’t make a sound.
a. frightened b. frightening c. frightful
4. Some parts of the film are quite … .
a. shocked b. shocking c. a shock
5. Brain is known as a very …. driver.
a. fast b. fastly c. fasting
6. Laura is …. her cousin.
a. the same age of b. the same age c. the same age as
7. …discussion is pointless.
a. Farther b. Further c. The furthest
8. You can become fitter more … if you put yourself on diet.
a. quick and easy b. quickly and easily c. quicker and easier
9. The metal feels … .
a. smoothly and cold b. smoothly and coldly c. smooth and cold
10. The pizza tastes … without any cheese at all.
a. delicious b. deliciously с. delighted
11. Her bag is so heavy that she … .
a. lift it hard b. can hardly lift it c. hardly can lift it
12. It’s … that we’ve met again!
a. amazing b. amazingly c. amazement
13. My parents object to the idea … .
a. strong b. with strength c. strongly
14. This job is for a …. person.
a. good-qualified b. well-qualified с. goodly-qualified
Ex. 34. Find the synonyms to following adjectives.
Addle-headed, faint-hearted, broken-hearted, far-off, up-to-date, two-faced, old-fashioned, full-throated, ladylike, well-behaved.
Key-words: deceitful, sad, sharp, courteous, old, careless, frightened, distant, foolish, modern.
Ex. 35. Find the most close Russian synonyms to the list of the compound adjectives.
Absent-minded, bed-ridden, chicken-hearted, double-dealing, ear-splitting, frost-bitten, ill-mannered, knife-edged, low-spirited, panic-stricken, quick-witted, razor-sharp, scatter-brained, self-evident, ship-shape, time-honoured, well-to-do, woe-begone
Ex. 36. Zodiac types. Characteristics Read & give Russian equivalents to the English adjectives.
ARIES (The Ram)
Positive (+): industrious, energetic, risky, compassionate
Negative (-): jealous, selfish, bossy, impulsive
TAURUS (The Bull)
Positive (+): calm, patient, attentive, resourceful, artistic, dependable
Negative (-): stubborn, slow-moving, boring, insensitive, embarrassing
GEMINI (The Twins)
Positive (+): inquisitive, entertaining, versatile, broad-minded, never prejudiced
Negative (-): quickly bored, impatient, nervous, dual personality, impractical
CANCER (The Crab)
Positive (+): tenacious, shrewd, kind, compassionate, domesticated, good memory
Negative (-): possessive, too easily hurt, moody, crabby, matriarchal, introspective, selfish
LEO (The Lion)
Positive (+): honest, loyal, proud, lively, responsible, courageous, hospitable
Negative (-): stubborn, arrogant, sulky, boastful, willful, smudgy
VIRGO (The Virgin)
Positive (+): gentle, sympathetic, humane, helpful, witty, organized, charming, dedicated
Negative (-): cranky, irritable, dogmatic, hypochondric, nervous, prudish
LIBRA (The Scales)
Positive (+): communicative, cooperative, sincere, artistic, refined, charming, romantic
Negative (-): fearful, flirtatious, indecisive, narcissistic, manipulative
SCORPIO (The Scorpion)
Positive (+): self-critical, investigative, protective, dynamic, magnetic, emotional
Negative (-): self-destructive, ruthless, suspicious, jealous, possessive, cunning, intolerant
SAGITTARIUS (The Archer)
Positive (+): frank, fair-minded, enthusiastic, inspiring, sensual
Negative (-): hot-headed, indulgent, critical, fanatic
CAPROCORN (The Sea Goat)
Positive (+): realistic, cautious, hard-working, conventional, loyal to tradition
Negative (-): egotistic, unforgiving, anxious, fatalistic, status-seeking, never satisfied
AQARIUS (The Water Carrier)
Positive (+): inventive, loyal, independent, scientific, cooperative, thoughtful
Negative (-): eccentric, self-centered, tactless, lacking confidence
PISCES (The Fishes)
Positive (+): caring, trusting, shy, helpful, romantic, creative, gentle
Negative (-): self-pitying, escapist, depressive, mystical
Ex. 37. Try to remember the following synonyms.
ANGRY. Annoyed, cross, enraged, indignant, infuriated, irate, offended, raging, wrathful.
BRAVE. Bold, daring, courageous, fearless, manly, plucky, audacious, dauntless.
CAREFUL. Alert, attentive, cautious, discreet, prudent, thoughtful, observant.
DANGEROUS. Hazardous, perilous, precarious, risky, threatening.
FAMOUS. Celebrated, distinguished, eminent, illustrious, noted, prominent, renowned.
IMPORTANT. Essential, memorable, notable, prominent, remarkable, momentous.
PROUD. Arrogant, boastful, conceited, disdainful, lofty, supercilious, vain, haughty.
WICKED. Disreputable, vicious, dissolute, profligate, vile, sinister, shameless.
Eх. 38. In the following sentences show the difference in meaning between the adjectives in bold type:
1. Jeffrey is a most obliging person. 2. Attendance at that particular lecture is obligatory. 3. There still remained a considerable distance to cover. 4. Lucy is always considerate of other people’s feelings. 5. The advertisements shot real smoke rings at the passers-by. 6. The smoky atmosphere of an industrial town may be harmful to a person with weak lungs. 7. Smoked salmon is sold at a delicatessen shop. 8. The ever smoking chimneys were eyesores. 9. The singer was lucky to have such an appreciative audience. 10. There was an appreciable change in the temperature. 11.Don is by far too impressionable for a boy of his age. 12. The building rose tall and impressive. 13. His Othello was an impressive bit of acting.
Eх. 39. Use the adjectives below to complete the sentences that follow.
Bored; delighted; different; fond; proud; responsible; senior; stupid; surprised; used;
1. My brother did well. I was … of him
2. Jason made a silly mistake. It was very …. of him.
3. I can’t stand the heat. I’m not …. to it.
4. Things have changed. Life is very …. from what it used to be.
5. I’m … at you. I can’t understand the way you behaved.
6. I’m … with the result. It’s exactly what I wanted.
7. Who is … for this mess? Who left all these things lying around?
8. Colin is … with school. He wants to leave as soon as possible.
9. Sandra is an old friend of mine. I’m very … of her.
10. In the army, a sergeant is …. to a corporal.
Eх. 40. In the following groups of sentences, show the difference in meaning between the adjectives in bold type:
a. 1. The statement was not immediately comprehensible to the listeners. 2. The book contained a comprehensive description of animal life in the Ussuri Region. 3. Comprehensive or ‘all-in’ schools are a relatively recent development in Britain’s educational system.
b. There seemed to be considerable difference of opinion on the matter. 2. Olivia is a most considerate person.
c. It was a luxurious hotel with telephones and TV sets in every room. 2. There was a special counter in the shop selling luxury goods, such as French perfume, leather handbags and other articles of the kind. 3. The garden was a luxuriant growth of blooming flowers.
d. The book is practically unavailable. 2. All his efforts to get at the truth proved unavailing.
e. A fit time and place for the meeting agreed upon, the committee proceeded to discuss the agenda. 2. The man gave a fitting reply to the allegation.
f. The young man never stopped to think that what he proposed to do might be ruinous to his prospects. 2. She kept the ruined dress hoping to get it remodeled some time later on.
Основная литература:
1. , Муллатагирова -политическая лексика. Методические указания для студентов гуманитарных факультетов Башгосуниверситета. Уфа: РИЦ БашГУ, 2009.
2. , Хакимова указания и тесты для подготовки к проведению интернет-экзамена по английскому языку для гуманитарных специальностей. Уфа: РИЦ БвшГУ, 2010.
6.1.4. Раздел «Говорение»
Устные темы (топики):
1. Моя семья
2. Башкирский государственный университет, мой факультет
3. Мой родной край
4. Россия
5. Страна изучаемого языка
6. Моя научная работа (тема работы, научный руководитель, проблемы исследования, актуальность научной работы)
6.1.5. Раздел «Работа со спец. текстами»
1. Read and translate the text
Is knowledge a subset of that which is both true and believed? (See below)
In this article, and in epistemology in general, the kind of knowledge usually discussed is propositional knowledge, also known as "knowledge-that" as opposed to "knowledge-how." For example: in mathematics, it is known that 2 + 2 = 4, but there is also knowing how to add two numbers. Many (but not all) philosophers therefore think there is an important distinction between "knowing that" and "knowing how", with epistemology primarily interested in the former. This distinction is recognized linguistically in many languages, though not in modern Standard English (N. B. some languages related to English still do retain these verbs, as in Scots: "wit" and "ken").[3]
In Personal Knowledge, Michael Polanyi articulates a case for the epistemological relevance of both forms of knowledge; using the example of the act of balance involved in riding a bicycle, he suggests that the theoretical knowledge of the physics involved in maintaining a state of balance cannot substitute for the practical knowledge of how to ride, and that it is important to understand how both are established and grounded.
In recent times, some epistemologists (Sosa, Greco, Kvanvig, Zagzebski) have argued that we should not think of knowledge this way.[citation needed] Epistemology should evaluate people's properties (i. e., intellectual virtues) instead of propositions' properties. This is, in short, because higher forms of cognitive success (i. e., understanding) involve features that can't be evaluated from a justified true belief view of knowledge.
Belief
Main article: Belief
Often, statements of "belief" mean that the speaker predicts something that will prove to be useful or successful in some sense—perhaps the speaker might "believe in" his or her favorite football team. This is not the kind of belief usually addressed within epistemology. The kind that is dealt with is when "to believe something" simply means any cognitive content held as true. For example, to believe that the sky is blue is to think that the proposition "The sky is blue" is true.
Knowledge entails belief, so the statement, "I know the sky is blue, but I don't believe it", is self-contradictory (see Moore's paradox). On the other hand, knowledge about a belief does not entail an endorsement of its truth. For example, "I know about astrology, but I don't believe in it" is perfectly acceptable. It is also possible that someone believes in astrology but knows very little about it (it would be paradoxical to believe in something of which one knows absolutely nothing).
Belief is a subjective personal basis for individual behavior, while truth is an objective state independent of the individual.
Many students read about belief whilst studying for socratic seminars.
Truth
Main article: Truth
See also: Criteria of truth
Whether someone's belief is true is not a prerequisite for someone to believe it. On the other hand, if something is actually known, then it categorically cannot be false. For example, a person believes that a particular bridge is safe enough to support them, and attempts to cross it; unfortunately, the bridge collapses under their weight. It could be said that they believed that the bridge was safe, but that this belief was mistaken. It would not be accurate to say that they knew that the bridge was safe, because plainly it was contrast, if the bridge actually supported their weight then they might be justified in subsequently holding that he knew the bridge had been safe enough for his passage, at least at that particular time. For something to count as knowledge, it must actually be true. There is a sense that makes us feel that the truth should command our belief.
The Aristotelian definition of truth states:
"To say of something which is that it is not, or to say of something which is not that it is, is false. However, to say of something which is that it is, or of something which is not that it is not, is true."
Justification
Plato
Main article: Theaetetus (dialogue)
In Plato's dialogue Theaetetus, Socrates considers a number of theories as to what knowledge is, the last being that knowledge is true belief that has been "given an account of" — meaning explained or defined in some way. According to the theory that knowledge is justified true belief, in order to know that a given proposition is true, one must not only believe the relevant true proposition, but one must also have a good reason for doing so. One implication of this would be that no one would gain knowledge just by believing something that happened to be true. For example, an ill person with no medical training, but a generally optimistic attitude, might believe that they will recover from their illness quickly. Nevertheless, even if this belief turned out to be true, the patient would not have known that they would get well since their belief lacked justification. The definition of knowledge as justified true belief was widely accepted until the 1960s. At this time, a paper written by the American philosopher Edmund Gettier provoked widespread discussion. See theories of justification for other views on the idea.
The Gettier problem
Main article: Gettier problem
In 1963 Edmund Gettier called into question the theory of knowledge that had been dominant among philosophers for thousands of years[4]. In a few pages, Gettier argued that there are situations in which one's belief may be justified and true, yet fail to count as knowledge. That is, Gettier contended that while justified belief in a true proposition is necessary for that proposition to be known, it is not sufficient. As in the diagram above, a true proposition can be believed by an individual (purple region) but still not fall within the "knowledge" category (yellow region).
According to Gettier, there are certain circumstances in which one does not have knowledge, even when all of the above conditions are met. Gettier proposed two thought experiments, which have come to be known as "Gettier cases," as counterexamples to the classical account of knowledge. One of the cases involves two men, Smith and Jones, who are awaiting the results of their applications for the same job. Each man has ten coins in his pocket. Smith has excellent reasons to believe that Jones will get the job and, furthermore, knows that Jones has ten coins in his pocket (he recently counted them). From this Smith infers, "the man who will get the job has ten coins in his pocket." However, Smith is unaware that he has ten coins in his own pocket. Furthermore, Smith, not Jones, is going to get the job. While Smith has strong evidence to believe that Jones will get the job, he is wrong. Smith has a justified true belief that a man with ten coins in his pocket will get the job; however, according to Gettier, Smith does not know that a man with ten coins in his pocket will get the job, because Smith's belief is "...true by virtue of the number of coins in Smith's pocket, while Smith does not know how many coins are in Smith's pocket, and bases his belief...on a count of the coins in Jones's pocket, whom he falsely believes to be the man who will get the job." (see [4] p. 122.) These cases fail to be knowledge because the subject's belief is justified, but only happens to be true in virtue of luck.
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