Английский язык для студентов-физиков (стр. 6 )

3.  Будь осторожен, чтобы прибор не сломался снова.

4.  Проблемы обсуждалисьтак, какбудто имели большое значение.

5.  Было бы трудно завершить исследование без его помоши.

6.  Важно, чтобы реакция не прекратилась.

7.  Он потребовал, чтобы все вычисления были проведены тща­тельно.

UNIT TEN GRAMMAR: GERUND

Forms of Gerund	Active	Passive
Indefinite	solving	being solved
Perfect	having solved	having been solved

FUNCTIONS OF GERUND

WORD AND PHRASE STUDY

re - = again + re - + N = N re - + construction = reconstruction

re - + V = V re - + model = remodel

• Translate the following words into Russian:

retake, retrace, reestablish, rearrange, reproduction, redirect, re­distribution, recharge, recapture, redefine

READING (10A)

• Read the passage attentively and be prepared to say a few words about "induced" or "artificial" radioactivity.

NUCLEAR FISSION

Following the discovery of neutrons in 1932 due to the English physicist James Chadwick many new types of artificial nuclear transformations have been investigated. Neutrons are the ideal projectiles for nuclear bombardment because they have no electrical charge and thus suffer no repulsion in their approach to atomic nuclei.

In some cases the impact of a neutron may result in the ejection of a proton or an a-particle, as in the reactions:

7NM + 0n1->6C,4 + 1H' 7Nl4 + 0n'->5B"+2H4

In some cases the incident neutron can eject another neutron without being captured itself:

Cl4+ n'-^C" +2 n1

6 О О О

whereas in other cases the incident neutron can be captured by the nucleus with the release of excess energy in the form ofay-quantum. The latter process, known as the radiative capture of neutrons, is of particular importance for heavy nuclear targets, since in this case the ejection of protons and a-particles is strongly hindered by the "outgoing" potential barrier surrounding the nucleus. I fit were not for the radiative capture ofthe neutron no heavier isotope of the bombarded clement would be formed. Sometimes these isotopes are stable so that no further nuclear transformation takes place:

r|6+ п'-^я017 + у

Hon 1

whereas in some other cases the radiative capture of a neutron leads to a (i-emission:

47Ag'w + on'->47Ag"u + Y 47Ag4°->48Cd» + e-

which is necessary to re-establish the proper neutron-to-proton ratio.

In the year 1939, a German radio-chemist, Otto Hahn, with his coworker, Frits Strassman, studied the effect of the neutron bombardment of uranium atoms, expecting to observe the formation of uranium isotopes with atomic weights higher than that of ordinary uranium, i. e., 238. To his great surprise Hahn found that the sample of uranium bombarded by neutrons contained radioactive atoms of a much lighter clement, barium. The mystery of this discovery was soon cleared up by two German physicists, Lisc Meitner and Otto Frisch, who suggested that in Hahn and Strassman's experiments the nuclei of U218 were split by incident neutrons into two nearly equal parts:

П238 + ni_4 Ba144+, ftKr94

32 о 56 36

Since the barium and krypton atoms produced in this process possessed excess neutrons, as compared with ordinary stable atoms of the same atomic weight (60Nd144 and 40Zr94), these so-called fission products emitted negative electrons, makingthem strongly radioactive. Frishand Meitner's interpretation of Hahn and Strassman's experimental finding as the splitting ofthe uranium nucleus into two nearly equal parts opened new vistas in the field of nuclear physics. Instead ofjust "chipping off' small pieces ofthe bombarded nucleus, as was the case in all previous experiments, here was a real breakup ofthe central body of the atom, the fission of a large droplet of the nuclearfluid into two half-size droplets. Instead ofjust the few million electron-volts of energy observed in previous experiments on artificial nucleartransformations, uranium fission liberates 200 MeV per atom.

The detailed theoretical studies ofthe process of nuclear fission were carried out by Niels Bohr and John Wheeler and published in the September 1939 issue of the Physical Review. This was the first and last comprehensive article on the theory of nuclear fission that appeared as "open literature" before the "security curtain" was drawn tight on that subject. According to Bohr and Wheeler, the fission of heavy nuclei resulting from the impact of a neutron is a resolution of a conflict between the opposing tendencies of nuclear (attractive) and Coulomb (repulsive) forces acting in the atomic nucleus.

• Find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.

не испытывают никакой отталкивающей силы; на две почти равных части; вслед за открытием; загадка этого открытия была вскоре разре­шена; как это происходило во всех предыдущих экспериментах; может привести к; идеальные частицы; радиационный захват; по сравнению с обычными устойчивыми атомами; испусканию протонов и альфа-частиц серьезно мешает; последний процесс особенно важен; эти так называемые продукты деления; никакого дальнейшего ядерного пре­вращения не происходит; правильное отношение числа нейтронов к числу протонов; избыточные нейтроны; избыточная энергия; налета­ющий нейтрон

• Read the passage again and answer the following questions.

1.  What problem is the text concerned with?

2.  Who is the discovery of neutron due to?

3.  Why are neutrons the ideal projectiles for nuclear bombardment?

4.  What may the impact of a neutron result in?

5.  What process is known as the radiative capture of neutrons?

6.  Why is this process of particular importance for heavy nuclcartargcts?

7.  What nuclear targets do you know?

8.  What were the investigators looking for while experimenting with heavy nuclear targets?

9.  What heavy nucleartargets did Otto Hahnand Fritz Strassman bombard with neutrons?

10.  What did they expect to observe in the experiment?

11.  What result did they really observe?

12.  Could Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman interpret the results of their experiment?

13.  Who was the mystery of their discovery cleared up by?

14.  What did Meitnerand Frisch suggest concerning Hahn's experiments?

15.  What energy does uranium fission liberate in this artificial nuclear transformation?

16.  Who carried out detailed theoretical studies ofthe process of artificial nuclear fission?

17.  What is the fission of heavy nuclei according to Bohr and Wheeler?

• Be prepared to say a few words about:

1.  Characteristics of neutron and its discovery.

2.  Different types of artificial nuclear transformations.

• Choose the proper word to fill up the blanks in the sentences below.

(capture, incident, collisions, fission, releases, results in)

1.  Particle... take place at locations known as integration regions.

2.  This nuclear fission... large quantities of energy which finally takes the form of heat energy.

3.  Neutron absorption frequently... the emission of secondary gamma rays.

4.  In other cases the... neutron can be captured by the nucleus.

5.  The spontaneous... of neutrons into positrons within 12 minutes through the emission of an electron is an evidence that neutrons can be considered as an electric modification of protons.

6.  If it were not for the radiation... of the neutron no heavier isotope ofthe bombarded element would be formed.

• Translate into English making use of according to.

1.  Согласно молекулярной теории, молекулы находятся в постоян­ном движении.

2.  По утверждению автора, эта гипотезадовольно сомнительна.

3.  Твердые тела классифицируются по их электрическим свойствам.

4.  По словам докладчика, эти факты можно объяснить по-разному.

5.  Что представляет собой деление тяжелых ядер, по утверждению Бора и Уилера?

CLASS WORK

READING (10В)

• Skim the passage as fast as you can and choose the answer that suits the following questions best.

1. Why arc the two fragments ineffective in producing further fission
processes?

a)  They do not carry enough energy.

b)  They carry too high electric charges.

c)  They carry no charge at all.

2. What process is responsible for nuclear energy liberation?

a)  uranium fission.

b)  a secondary process accompanying nuclear fission.

c)  breakup of a uranium nucleus.

FISSION NEUTRONS

In spite of the fact that each of the two fragments produced in the fission of a uranium nucleus carries about 100 Mev of energy, these fragments are quite ineffective in producing further fission processes; this is due to the fact that the fission fragments carry a very high electric charge and are consequently strongly repelled by the other uranium nuclei with which they may collide. *Thus, the discovery of uranium fission would not contribute anything to the problem of the large-scale liberation of nuclear energy if it were not for a secondary process that was found to accompany nuclear fission.

*It was discovered that apart from the two large fragments of the original nucleus, there are always several extra neutrons emitted in the breakup. In the case of U235 the average number of "fission neutrons" formed is 2.5 per uranium nucleus. *These fission neutrons formed in the breakup of one uranium nucleus may collide with the surrounding uranium nuclei and produce more fission and still more fission neutrons and if the conditions are favourable, the breeding (расширенное воспроизводство) of fission neutrons goes crescendo as does the breeding of pl248. Thus we get a branching chain reaction (разветвленная цепная реакция) and in practically no time all the nuclei of uranium in a given pile of this material break up with the liberation of a tremendous amount of energy.

•  Read the passage again and translate the sentences marked with an asterisk.

•  Give a free translation of the following text.

В 1930 году немецкий физик Бете (Boethe) заметил, что бомбар­дировка бериллия природными сс-частицами из полония вызывала весьма специфическое излучение. Бете полагал, что это излучение было образовано у-квантами высоких энергий, и только через два года Чадвик (Chadwick) доказал, что это излучение было ни чем иным, как быстро движущимся пучком частиц, которые имеют ту же массу, что и протоны, но не несут электрического заряда. Эти новые части­цы получили имя нейтроны. Нейтроны самопроизвольно (spontaneously) распадаются на протоны в течение 12 минут с испус­канием электрона. Общее (collective) название для нейтронов и про­тонов — нуклон, нейтроны — нейтральные нуклоны, тогда как прото­ны — нуклоны, несущие положительный элементарный заряд. Не имея электрического заряда, нейтроны не подвержены (are not subjected to) действию электрических отталкивающих сил при при­ближении к ядру и могут легко проникать (penetrate) в заряженные ядра. Благодаря этому нейтроны являются идеальными бомбардиру­ющими частицами.

HOMEWORK

(to be done in writing)

1. Translate into Russian.

1.  Providing such states existed, they could be produced by electron-positron collisions and could be detected by their characteristic decays.

2.  Supposing an antinucleus were dressed with a cloud of positrons it would be an atom of antimatter.

3.  In case a potential were applied to gas at low pressure, ionization ofthe molecules would result.

4.  Should the neutron flux increase, the flow of coolant would increase too.

5.  Had separate pieces of p - and n-type material been placed in contact, the p-n-junction would have been produced.

6.  We would understand the operation of a transistor provided we became familiar with the mechanism of charge transitions across a junction formed between a piece of n-type semiconductor and a piece of p-type.

7.  Should the reaction proceed smoothly, the end product might increase.

8.  If it were not for the radiative capture ofthe neutron no heavier isotope ofthe bombarded element would be formed.

9.  If the Moon were one half as massive as the Earth it would be two times as far from the center of gravity as the Earth is, if it were one third as massive as the Earth, it would be three times as far, and so on.

2. Translate into English.

1.  Если бы мы проверили прибор, он бы не отказал.

2.  Если бы не он, мы бы не обнаружили эту ошибку.

3.  Если бы ее спросили об этом соединении, она не смогла бы рас­сказать о его свойствах.

4.  Если бы они знали природу этого возбуждения, они получили бы другие результаты.

5.  Если бы он был здесь, он бы сказал нам, куда поместить этот образец.

UNIT ELEVEN

GRAMMAR: GERUND

Forms of Gerund	Active	Passive
Indefinite	solving	being solved
Perfect	having solved	having been solved

His knowing physics well To, что он знает физику хорошо,

did not surprise us. нас не удивило.

Everybody knows of Roentgen's Всем известно, что Рентген onpe-having determined the effect делил действие Х-лучей. of X-rays.

• Sentences to be translated.

1.  His working at this problem was known to us.

2.  Their having obtained new data is very important.

3.  Our having been asked to make such an experiment surprised him.

4.  I heard of his having carried out that research.

5.  They spoke of the results having been achieved.

6.  Einstein's being awarded the Nobel prize in physics soon became widely known.

WORD AND PHRASE STUDY

due to, thanks to, because of; on account of; owing to — вследствие,

благодаря, из-за

84

Copper has been used <

due to thanksto because of on account of owing to

> its great conductivity.

V+-ment = N develop + - ment = development

Form nouns from the following verbs and translate them into Russian.

move, establish, agree, adjust, improve, excite, appoint

V+ - ive = A act + - ive = active

• Think of verbs corresponding to the following adjectives and translate them into Russian.

creative, refractive, indicative, attractive, explosive, representative, expressive

READING (11 A)

• Read the passage attentively and follow the first steps in the development of nuclear physics. Get ready to talk about the facts, hypotheses and experimental observations in the field.

FROM THE HISTORY OF MESONS AND HYPERONS

In the year 1932, a Japanese physicist, Hidekei Yukawa, suggested that the nuclear forces acting between protons and neutrons should be due to the presence of a new type of particle that serves as a "nuclear glue" holding the atomic nuclei together. According to Yukawa's theoretical consideration, the new particles must have a mass intermediate between that of protons and that of electrons, so they received the name mesons (from the Greek mesons meaning "between").

Five years after the introduction of these purely hypothetical particles for the explanation of nuclear forces, they were actually observed in cosmic rays by an American physicist, Carl Anderson. The so-called "primary cosmic rays" bombarding the atmosphere of our planet are formed by streams of extremely high-energy protons and a few other heavier positively charged nuclei that are probably accelerated by electromagnetic fields in interstellar space. The energies of these primary cosmic particles range from comparatively low values to thousands of billions of electron-volts. Colliding with the nuclei of atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen at the outer fringes of the atmosphere, these primary cosmic ray particles produce various kinds of penetrating radiations, including high-energy y-quanta and streams of negative and positive electrons; in fact, positive electrons were first discovered in cosmic rays. Observing the tracks formed by cosmic ray particles in a vertical cloud chamber placed between the poles of a strong magnet, Anderson noticed that the trajectories of some of the particles, both positively and negatively charged, were bent by a magnetic field more than would be expected in the case of fast protons but considerably less than should be the case with electrons. From the observed magnetic deflection, Anderson estimated that this new kind of particle is about 200 times heavier than an electron, in agreement with Yukawa's theoretical prediction. These particles were first called "heavy electrons", but the name was later changed to "mesons".

Later studies have shown that there are actually two kinds of mesons, heavier ones called п-mesons or pions, and lighter ones known as u-mesons. Both pions and muons can carry either a positive or negative electric charge (п+, л-, u.+, u.), and in addition there also exist neutral pions (n°). All of these new particles, as well as the positive and negative cosmic ray electrons (e+, e) are genetically related to each other and form a sequence somewhat similar to the sequence of the radioactive elements. It is now established that the primary high-energy protons entering the outer fringes of the atmosphere give rise to neutral and charged pions. Neutral pions possess a very short lifetime (about 10"" sec) and, in spite of their high velocity, break up into two y-quanta:

n°-* y + y1

before reaching the surface ofthe earth. The charged pions (both positive and negative) live somewhat longer (108 sec) but still most of them break up high in the atmosphere according to the equation:

я*-* u* + neutrino

Accordingly, for the study of pions and their decay into muons photographic equipment attached to large balloons must be sent high into the stratosphere.

The mean lifetime of muons is comparatively long (106 sec), and many of them reach the surface of the earth and permit themselves to be photographed in ordinary cloud chambers. Since cloud chamber equipment is too bulky and heavy to be sent up in balloons, cosmic ray researchers have developed a new method for photographing the tracks of cosmic particles at high altitudes. Instead of using the ionizing properties of fast charged particles passing through humid air, the new method is based on the fact that these particles affect the grains through which they pass when they travel through a fine­grained photographic emulsion. When the photographic plate is developed it shows dark streaks that correspond to the trajectories followed by particles. A very rare photograph of this kind showing the formation of a pion resulting from the collision of a primary cosmic ray particle with a composite nucleus and the subsequent decay of this pion into a muon and an electron is shown in the figure below.

Apart from mesons, which have a mass intermediate between those of an electron and a proton recent studies of cosmic rays have discovered particles that are heavier than protons and are known under the collective name hyperons. The study of these particles and of their interrelation with each other was, for a time, the most interesting and most important field of exploration in physics.

• Find equivalents for the following phrases.

ядерные силы, вероятно, обуславливаются наличием; в соответ­ствии с теоретическими предположениями; протоны чрезвычайно высоких энергий; межзвездное пространство; энергии колеблются от сравнительно низких величин до; проникающее излучение; и поло­жительно и отрицательно заряженные; приблизительно в 100 раз тя­желее; в соответствии с теоретическим предположением; либо поло­жительный, либо отрицательный электрический заряд; кроме того, существуют нейтральные пионы; а также электроны; ряд, несколько похожий на; несмотря на их высокую скорость; среднее время жизни; слишком громоздкое; набольших высотах; вместо использования; воз­действует на зерна; когда фотопластинку проявляют; помимо мезо­нов, соответствующих траекториям, по которым следуют частицы; пион, образующийся в результате столкновения

• Re-read the passage and supply answers to the questions.

1.  What problem does the passage deal with?

2.  What assumption did a Japanese physicist, Hidekei Yukawa, make in 1932?

3.  What did Yukawa try to explain?

4.  What did he assume concerning the mass of these hypothetical particles?

5.  Who observed these particles experimentally?

6.  Where did Carl Andersen observe mesons?

7.  What instruments did physicists use then for observing primary cosmic ray particles?

8.  Why were mesons first called "heavy electrons"?

9.  How many kinds of mesons were discovered later?

10.  What is the difference between n - and u.-mesons?

11.  How many types of я-mesons are there?

12.  What two particles does n° break up into before reaching the surface of the earth?

13.  What is the lifetime of a neutral pion?

14.  What particles does the breakup of л° give rise to?

15.  Why does if practically never reach the surface of the earth while many ofthe muons reach the surface of the earth?

16.  Why is cloud chamber equipment difficult to be sent up in balloons?

17.  What new method has been developed by physicists for detecting tracks of cosmic particles at high altitudes?

18.  What fact is the photographic emulsion method based on?

• Match the synonyms from both columns.

II

mean, altitude, to affect, to estimate, usual, to result in, regardless of,

to range, actually, in addition, similar, to give rise to, in spite of, ordinary, to result from

alike, to arise from, height, besides, in fact, average, to evaluate, to influence, to vary

to cause, to result in, to give rise to, to bring about — привести к... to be caused, to result from, to be due to, to arise from — являться резуль­татом...

• Translate into Russian paying attention to the words in bold type.

1.  The errors may have resulted from lack of accuracy in the measurements.

2.  Neutron absorption frequently results in the emission of secondary gamma rays.

3.  The disintegration ofthe radiative elements gives rise to three types of radiation.

4.  The black spots on the surface might be due to long exposure.

5.  The compound nucleus formation will bring about elastic scattering.

6.  The mistake has been caused by lack of operator knowledge.

Remember!

определительное существительное (какой?) <— (какой?) «- (что?) сущ. + сущ. + сущ.

При переводе такой группы слов следует прежде всего начинать пе­ревод с последнего существительного (определяемого). Все остальные существительные, стоящие перед ним, его определяют.

gam ma-ray sensitivity — чувствительность по гамма лучам

energy-charge relation - зависимость заряда от энергии

• Translate the following word combinations.

electron rest-mass, phase shift analysis, electron velocity distribution, pulse series generator

• Translate into English using both... and, either... or, neither... nor.

1.  И теория, и практика показывают, что новый метод лучше.

2.  Ни он, ни другие ученые не сумели установить это соотношение.

3.  Эту книгу можно найти или в библиотеке, или в читальном зале.

4.  Отклонение рентгеновских лучей наблюдалось как в магнитном, так и в электрическом поле.

5.  Ни я, ни мой друг не смогли решить это уравнение.

CLASSWORK

READING (1 IB)

• Skim the passage rapidly and explain (he title.

THE MYSTERIOUS NEUTRINO

The early studies of radioactive (3-decay (the emission of an electron by an unstable atomic nucleus) led to the conclusion that there is something wrong with the energy balance involved. While the (x-particles emitted by a given radioactive element always carry a well-defined amount of energy characteristic of that particular clement, (3-particles show a wide energy spread (разброс) ranging from almost zero to rather high energy values. Since the total energy liberation in the transformation of one atomic nucleus into another is expected to be the same for all nuclei of a given kind, it was suspected that there would be another particle coming out ofthe nucleus along with the electron that carries the missing (недостающий) balance of energy. This hypothetical particle, which must be electrically neutral and must have a mass that is much smaller than even the mass of an electron, received the name neutrino which means "little neutral" in Italian.

The absence of electric charge and the extremely small mass allow neutrinos to penetrate thick material layers with the greatest of ease; a thick concrete (бетонная) wall is just as ineffective in stopping a beam of neutrinos as a chicken wire fence (проволочная изгородь) is in stopping a swarm (рой) of mosquitos. The neutrinos that are produced in great quantities near the center of the sun in the process of nuclear energy production pierce its entire body and fly away as if there were nothing there at all. It has been estimated theoretically that in order to stop effectively a beam of neutrinos we would need a shield several light-years thick.

In spite of the almost incredible ability of neutrinos to make their "getaway" (выход) physicists managed in 1955 to stop a few of them, thus finding unquestionable proof of their existence. F. Reines and C. Cowen of the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory used forthis purpose the collision process between neutrinos and the nuclei of hydrogen atoms (protons) in which the neutrino was expected to produce a positron and to transform the proton into a neutron:

я + neutrino^ n + e+

These two scientists built a giant particle counter that registered neutrinos as well as positrons and placed it near one of the nuclear piles. The nuclear reactions taking place in the operating pile produce a tremendous number of neutrinos that stream out through a heavy shielding which holds back all other nuclear radiations. Although the chance of a neutrino hitting a proton and producing the above-mentioned reaction is only 1 out of 103u, some of these reactions do actually take place, resulting in the simultaneous appearance of a neutron and the accompanying positron. Thus, the uncatchable neutrino was finally caught and joined the company of well-established elementary particles.

• Re-read the passage and give answers to the following questions.

1.  What made scientists search for a hypothetical particle neutrino?

2.  Why do physicists say of a neutrino that it is next to nothing?

3.  What experimental procedure did scientists stage to detect neutrinos?

4.  Why docs a heavy shielding of a reactor hold back all other nuclear particles but neutrinos?

• Give a free translation of the following passage.

Интерес к космическим лучам сверхвысоких энергий объединяет представителей двух наук — астрофизики и физики элементарных частиц. Дело втом, что, с одной стороны, источниками этого излучения могут быть такие пока недостаточно познанные астрономические объекты, как пульсары, оболочки сверхновых звезд, черные дыры, активные ядра галактики и квазары, и потому информация, приносимая космическим излучением, очень важна для физики космоса. С другой стороны, это излучение состоит из частиц самых больших из известных нам энергий, в тысячи и миллионы раз превосходящих те, которые достигнуты на созданных человеком ускорителях. Вот почему изучение таких частиц имеет важнейшее значение и для физики высоких энергий. В целом же можно сказать, что исследование космических лучей — это своего рода глубокая разведка (reconnaissance) в «горячих точках» науки.

HOMEWORK

(to be done in writing)

1. Translate into Russian.

1.  The substance under investigation should be examined both by chemical and physical means.

2.  They should have used some other metal for the conductor, for this one offers too high resistance to current.

3.  You should have used a specially designed computer.

4.  An operator of a computing machine should have an engineering background.

5.  The density of the medium would change with temperature no matter what measures they took.

6.  There were electron tube devices in our laboratories but now they are replaced by semiconductor ones.

7.  It would be desirable that all necessary calculations be made before the experiment starts.

2. Translate into English.

1.  Огромное количество энергии высвобождалось бы в этом случае.

2.  Вам следовало бы провести всесторонний анализ этого процесса.

3.  Мы хотели определить это отношение, но никак не могли.

4.  Мы узнали, что нейтроны не будут испытывать отталкивания при приближении к ядрам атомов.

5.  Падающий нейтрон был бы захвачен ядром.

6.  Вам следует знать, что растепление ядра урана на две почти равные части открыло новые перспективы в области ядерной физики.

UNIT TWELVE GRAMMAR: GERUND

Adverbial Modifier

in	In measuring the current they used that device. Измеряя (при измерении) силу(ы) тока, они использовали этот прибор.
on, upon, after	On measuring the current they put down the results. Измерив (после измерения) силу(ы) тока, они записали результаты.
by	They achieved good results by experimenting. Они получили хорошие результаты путем экспери­ментирования (экспериментируя).
without	Не left the room without saying a word. Он ушел из комнаты, не сказав ни слова.

• Phrases to be completed.

1.  In solving the problem...

2.  On comparing those phenomena...

3.  In processing the data...

4.  Upon calculating the mass...

5.  By diluting the solution...

6.  Without increasing the speed...

93

WORD AND PHRASE STUDY

• Study the meanings of due, be due to and due to.

due (to) adj. — соответствующий, надлежащий, вызванный,

обусловленный be due to — бытьобусловленным, являться следствием;

быть разработанным, предложенным due to prep. — благодаря, из-за, вследствии

(syn. because of, on account of, owing to, in view of, thanks to, by/in virtue of, consequent on)

• Now translate these sentences.

1,. Due consideration must be given to missile performance requirements.

2.  No difference due to n-p scattering in the target was found.

3.  Coincidences arise due to second-order effects.

4.  A due explanation ofthe phenomenon of radioactivity was first given by the Curies.

5.  This phenomenon was found to be due to the lowering of the temperature down to -200 °C.