Английский язык (стр. 2 )

Text 6

METROLOGY

1. Metrology, the science of measurement. From three fundamental quantities, length, mass, and time, all other mechanical quantities – e. g., area, volume, acceleration, and power – can be derived (получать, извлекать). A comprehensive system1 of practical measurement should include at least three other bases, taking in the measurement of electromagnetic quantities, of temperature, and of intensity of radiation – e. g., light.

2. Accordingly, the 11th General Conference of Weights and Measures in 1960 adopted six quantities and units as the bases on which was established the International System of Units. Since 1887 many national standards laboratories have been founded to set up and maintain standards of measurement, both for the six basic quantities and for their systematic derivatives. They also do attendant test and verification work for science and industry. Examples are the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) in the United States, the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in the United Kingdom, and similar bodies2 in many other countries.

3. The international metric organization created by the Metric Convention of 1875 (amended3 in 1921) also has a central laboratory, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, at Sevres (near Paris). It has duties analogous to those of the national laboratories but is concerned especially with the international coordination of all scientific work relating to the maintenance and improvement of the metric system of units and standards. This organization acts under the authority of the General Conference of Weights and Measures with the aid of an elected executive body4, the International Committee of Weights and Measures, which meets every year.

Notes:

1. a comprehensive system	универсальная система
2. similar bodies	здесь: подобные организации
3. amended	улучшать; исправлять, вносить поправки
4. executive body	исполнительный орган

Text 7

METRIC SYSTEM AND ITS ORIGIN

1. Metric system, international decimal system of weights and measures, based on the metre for length and the kilogram for mass. The idea of a universal system of measures and weights dates from long ago1, but it was realized only two centuries ago. The metric, or decimal system was worked out by the French Academy of Sciences in 1791 and was adopted in France in 1795 and, by the late 20th century, was used officially in almost all nations.

2. The French Revolution of 1789 provided the opportunity to pursue (претворить) the frequently discussed idea of replacing the confusing welter2 of traditional but illogical units of measure with a rational system based on multiples of 103. In 1791 the French National Assembly directed (дала распоряжение) the French Academy of Sciences to address (здесь: обратить внимание) the chaotic state of French weights and measures. It was decided that the new system would be based on a natural physical unit to ensure immutability. How were the units for length and weight defined then? Two French scientists who were given the task to define these units, took one fourth of the distance from the North Pole to the Equator on the geographical meridian which is running through Paris (the distance from Dunkirk in France to Barcelona in Spain) and divided it into ten million equal parts. One of these parts was called a metre or «measure». The academy settled on the length of 1/10 of a quadrant of a great circle of the Earth, measured around the poles of the meridian passing through Paris. An arduous six-year survey to determine4 the arc of the meridian from Barcelona, Spain, to Dunkirk, Fr., eventually yielded a value of 39,7008 inches for the new unit to be called the metre, from Greek metron, meaning «measure».

3. All other metric units were derived from the metre, including the gram for weight (one cubic centimetre of water at its maximum density) and the litre for capacity (one-thousandth of a cubic metre). Greek prefixes were established for multiples of 10, ranging from pico - (one-trillionth) to tera - (one trillion) and including the more familiar micro-(one-millionth), milli-(one - thousandth), centi-(one-hundredth), and kilo-(one thousand). Thus, a kilogram equals 1 000 grams, a millimetre 1/1 000 of a metre. In 1799 the Metre and Kilogram of the Archives, platinum embodiments of the new units, were declared the legal standards for all measurements in France, but the motto of the metric system expressed the hope that the new units would be «for all people, for all time».

4. Not until 1875 did an international conference meet in Paris to establish an International Bureau of Weights and Measures. The Treaty of the Metre signed there provided for a permanent laboratory in Sevres, near Paris, where international standards are kept, national standard copies inspected, and metrological research conducted. The General Conference of Weights and Measures, with diplomatic representatives of some 40 countries meets every six years to consider reform. The conference selects 18 scientists who form the International Committee of Weights and Measures that governs the Bureau.

5. For a time, the international prototype metre and kilogram were based, for convenience, upon the archive standards rather than directly upon actual measurement of the Earth. Definition by natural constants was readopted in 1960, when the metre was redefined as 1,650 – 763.73 wavelengths of the orange-red line in the krypton-86 spectrum, and again in 1983, when it was redefined as the distance travelled by light in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 second. The kilogram is still defined as the mass of the international prototype at Sevres.

6. In the 20th century the metric system generated derived systems needed in science and technology to express physical properties more complicated than simple length, weight, and volume. The centimetre-gram-second (CGS) and the metre-kilogram-second (MKS) systems were the chief systems so used until the establishment of the International System of Units.

*****ssian scientists played a great part in the spreading of the metric system in Russia as well as in other countries. As far as in5 1867 D. I. Mendeleyev addressed Russian scientists to help to spread the decimal system. The project of the law about the use of the metric system in Russia was also worked out by D. I. Mendeleyev.

It should be said, however, that up till6 the end of the 19th century different units of measurement were used in various countries. In our country the metric system was adopted in 1918, soon after the Great October Socialist Revolution. Now it is adopted by most of the countries. None of the systems of the past can be compared in simplicity to that of our days.

Notes:

1. dates from long ago	возникло давно
2. the confusing welter	неразбериха (путаница)
3. multiples of 10	кратные десяти
4. an arduous six-year survey to determine	сложная шестилетняя съемка по определению
5. as far as in	еще в
6. up till	вплоть до

Text 8

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

1. Unit is a quantity or dimension adopted as a standard measurement. Much of physics deals with measurements of physical quantities such as: length, time, velocity, area, volume, mass, density, temperature and energy. Many of these quantities are interrelated. Measuring a quantity means ascertaining (установление) its ratio to some other fixed quantity of the same kind, known as the unit of that kind of quantity. A unit is an abstract conception, defined either by reference to some arbitrary (произвольный) material standard or to natural phenomena.

2. Practically there are three main systems of measurement in use today:

-  the British system of units;

-  the Metric system of units;

-  the System of International Units (SIU).

With a few exceptions nearly all the nations of the world use the Metric system. The value of the MKS (meter-kilogram-second) system is that its various units possess simple and logical relationships among themselves, while the British system (fps-foot-pound-second) is a very complicated one. The SI Units is an internationally agreed coherent system of units derived from the MKS system.

The seven basic units in it are: the meter (m), kilogram (kg), second (s), kelvin (k), mole (mol), and candle (cd).

INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Text 9

CHARLES BABBAGE (1791–1871)

1. Charles Babbage was an English mathematician and inventor. It was he who suggested that a machine for mathematical computations could be made, that’s why the history of automatic computers is connected with the name of this English scientist. When Babbage, a professor of Cambridge University, invented the first calculating machine in 1812, he could hardly have imagined the situation we find ourselves in today.

2. Nearly everything we do in the modern world is helped, or even controlled, by puters are being used more and more extensively in the world today, for the simple reason that they are far more efficient than human beings. They have much better memories and can store huge amounts of information, and they can do calculations in a fraction of the time taken by a human mathematician. No man alive can do hundreds of thousands or even hundreds of millions sums in one second, but an advanced computer can. In fact, computers can do many of the things we do, but faster and better.

3. Charles Babbage was born in Devonshire, England in 1791. He didn’t receive a good education at school, but he taught himself mathematics so well, that when he went to Cambridge he found that he knew mathematics better than his tutor (преподаватель, куратор). Babbage was outstanding among his contemporaries because he was the first to insist on the practical application of science and mathematics. In 1812 Babbage helped found the Analytical Society, whose object was to introduce developments from the European continent into English mathematics. In 1816 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society1 of London.

4. The idea of mechanically calculating mathematical tables first came to Babbage in 1812, working with the table of logarithms, which he knew to be full of mistakes. Later he constructed (made) a small calculator – working model that could perform certain mathematical computations. This small working model was demonstrated in 1822, and in 1823 he obtained government support; he was promised a subsidy for the design of a project machine. In spite of the fact that he was promised a financial help, he had to finance the whole of the work himself.

5. The construction of calculating machine required the development of mechanical engineering techniques2 to which Babbage of necessity devoted himself. During the mid – 1830s he developed plans for the so-called analytical engine, the forerunner (предшественник) of the modern digital computer. In this device he envisioned the capability of performing any arithmetical operation on the basis of instructions from punched cards (перфокарта) a memory unit, in which to store numbers, sequential control3, and most of the other basic elements of the present-day computer. Though Babbage devoted the rest of his life to an attempt to fulfill this task, the analytical engine, however was never completed. He was able to finish only part of the machine, though he prepared thousands of detailed drawings from which it could be made. He wrote more than eighty books and papers, but he was misunderstood by his contemporaries. Babbage’s design was forgotten until his unpublished notebooks were discovered in 1937. He tried to solve by himself and with his own resources a series of problems which in the end required the united efforts of two generations of engineers. Babbage made notable contributions in other areas as well. He assisted in establishing the modern postal system in England and compiled the first reliable actuarial (статистический) tables. He also invented a type of speedometer.

He died a disappointed man. After his death, his son continued his work and built part of an arithmetic unit, which printed out its results directly on paper.

Notes:

1. a fellow of the Royal Society	член Королевского Общества
2. mechanical engineering technique	технология машиностроения
3. sequential control	последовательный контроль (управление)

Text 10

INFORMATION SCIENCE

1. Much is being said and written these days about information systems. America is shifting from an industrial to an information society, and that change will be as profound as our change from an agricultural society to an industrial one (an «industrial revolution based on advanced technology»). There is much evidence of such a change. Only one million out of the last 25 million new jobs created in the United States were in the heavy industries. Steel mills and automobile factories in the United States are closing at an alarming rate, while information firms are springing up1 everywhere, especially in Washington, D. C., where much of the currently saleable information is either generated or digested. A big attraction for such firms is that you never run out of information. It is a self-generating resource.

According to estimates, 75 per cent of all jobs in the United States will involve computers. One of every two workers in the United States will be looking at a CRT (cathode ray tube) screen at some time during the working day.

2. Information science2, discipline that deals with the processes of storing and transferring information. It attempts to bring together concepts and methods from various disciplines such as library science, computer science3 and engineering4, linguistics, psychology, and other technologies in order to develop techniques and devices to aid in the handling5 – that is, in the collection, organization, storage, retrieval, interpretation, and use – of information.

The transfer of information through time requires the existence of some storage medium6 which is designated a document – hence the term documentation. Historically, «documentation» emerged as a distinct discipline in the early 20th century. The discipline grew in response to the growth of the periodical and the journal as the prevalent media for scientific reports. The roots of the discipline of information science lay in three post-World War II developments: the Shannon-Weaver information theory model, Norbert Wiener’s conception of the science of cybernetics, and rapid advances in the design and production of electronic computers. These innovations pointed to a new field of study in which many disciplines could be merged under the unifying idea of «information».

3. In its early stages, information science was primarily concerned with applying the then-new computer technology to the processing and managing of documents. Modelling studies7 were undertaken of the effectiveness of information storage and retrieval; modes of human-machine interaction; the effect of form on the content and comprehension of information; the processes of information generation8, transmission, and transformation; and the establishment of general principles that explain and predict information phenomena.

4. The applied computer technologies – and more recently, the theoretical areas of study – of information science have since permeated [распространять(ся), проникать] many other disciplines. Moreover, the utility of computer systems is greatly enhanced by their ability to communicate with one another through computer networks, provided9 that the proper communications connections10 have been established and the computer data files and programs have been modified to agree with a common communications protocol11.

All of these technological advances together have made information a new basic resource, in importance. There are, in fact, those who believe that control of information stores and processing facilities may well become more important than natural resources as a source of social and economic power.

Notes:

1. are springing up	создаются
2. information science	информатика
puter science	теория вычислительных систем
4. engineering	инженерное дело; техника; строительство
5. handling	обработка; оперирование
6. some storage medium	некоторая среда для хранения информации; носитель информации
7. modelling studies	исследование, изучение моделирования
8. the processes of information generation	процессы формирования (зарождения) информации
9. provided	если; при условии, если
10. proper communications connections	соответствующие коммуникационные связи
mon communications protocol	общий коммуникационный узел

Text 11

THE PROBLEM OF CONTROL

1. Some fifteen years ago a group of science men formed in America. They were eminent scientists in many different fields, but they were united by a common interest in a particular kind of problem. In a nutshell1, this was the problem of control (управление). The time was ripe for some new thinking on this topic. Particular manifestations of the control problem were arising at this time because of the Second World War. In fact, several rapidly developing lines of thought, originating in quite different spheres of activity, were coming together.

2. People were busy with the design of electronic control machinery of various kinds. Mathematicians were trying to help by discussing the behaviour of information2 inside these electrical systems in terms of mathematics. Elsewhere, people were developing a theoretical interest in the way in which information can be coded3. They were trying to answer the question: how can we measure the content of information4 in a message, and how can this be expressed exactly? Statisticians, too, were beginning to discuss the flow of information in the animal body5 as the basis of physiological control. Biological scientists had also shown interest in problems of control, and in the way information behaves in the body of an animal. They were beginning to make attempts to discuss such questions formally with the help of mathematics. Logicians, engineers, psychiatrists – all these and others were finding roads which led to the same basic topic: the notion of control itself. Gradually scientists began to realize, through the terrible barrier constituted by their different professional languages, that they were talking about the same thing.

Notes:

1. in a nutshell	в двух словах (кратко говоря)
2. the behaviour of information	поведение (преобразование) информации
3. can be coded	здесь: может быть сохранена
4. measure the content of information	определение структуры информации
5. in the animal body	в организме (человека, животного)

Text 12

NATIONAL INFORMATION MANAGEMENT

1. Modernization, fast technological progress, improved communication and increased sophistication of people and their demands1, has created a complex and dynamic society. As a consequence, management of society and its actions on the environment has become increasingly difficult. In facing up the challenge, many countries recognized the potential and significance of information systems in public administration, management and policy making. Isolated and dedicated information systems2 were established by different government agencies with hardly any consideration for the flow of data from one system to another. Most of these systems were developed at the national level where, compared to the lower levels of governments, expertise (компетенция, опыт) and other resources were usually more available.

2. During the last decades, there has been a global tendency towards decentralization, where national governments delegate to an increasing extent administrative and planning responsibilities to regional and local authorities. As technology advanced, it became progressively cheaper and more accessible, such that local authorities could afford to establish their own systems. Though they had similar requirements, local authorities started to establish their systems independent of each other, without any coordination or standardization. Consequently the decentralized structure magnified the risk of establishing a huge number of vital local information systems in uncoordinated manner.

3. Consequently the need for standardization became more urgent not only to optimize the use of resources but also to allow regional and national governments to draw from local systems detailed or aggregated data for decision-making and planning purposes.

The most important motivations for coordination are in general, as follows:

-  Many organizations are involved in data collection and updating which can lead to gaps and duplications;

-  Many types of data are for more than one purpose by more than one user;

-  The reliability and consistency of data can be enhanced by cross checking or by evaluating interrelated parameters;

-  The high cost of establishing information systems;

-  The high demand on expertise and other qualified human resources;

-  The need for integrating different types of data for multi-disciplinary development plans;

-  The need for statistical and aggregated data at different planning levels.

Notes:

1. increased sophistication of people and their demands	завышенные и изощренные запросы населения (людей)
2. isolated and dedicated information systems	отдельные и специализированные информационные системы

Text 13

WHAT IS A GIS?

1. A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing things that exist and events that happen on earth. GIS technology integrates common database operations such as query and statistical analysis1. These abilities distinguish GIS from other information systems and make it valuable to a wide range of public and private enterprises for explaining events, predicting outcomes, and planning strategies. Geographic Information Systems – developed and pioneered in Canada close to 30 years ago – are among the most exciting and powerful geomatics decision-making tools in the world.

2. The major challenges we face in the world today – overpopulation, pollution, deforestation, natural disasters – have a critical geographic dimension2. Whether setting a new business, finding the best soil for growing fruits, or figuring out3 the best route for an emergency vehicle, local problems also have a geographical component GIS will give you the power to create maps, integrate information, visualize scenarios, solve complicated problems, present powerful ideas, and develop effective solutions like never before. GIS is a tool used by individuals and organizations, schools, governments, and businesses seeking innovative ways to solve their problems.

3. Map-making and geographic analysis are not new, but a GIS performs these tasks better and faster than do the old manual methods. And, before GIS technology, only a few people had the skills necessary to use geographic information to help with decision-making and problem solving. Today, GIS is a multibillion-dollar industry employing hundreds of thousands of people worldwide. GIS is taught in schools, colleges, and universities throughout the world. Professionals in every field are increasingly aware of the advantages of thinking and working geographically.

GIS TASKS

1. General purpose geographic information systems essentially perform six processes or tasks:

-  input;

-  manipulation;

-  management;

-  query and analysis;

-  visualization.

Input. Before geographic data can be used in a GIS, the data must be converted into a suitable digital format. The process of converting data from paper maps into computer files is called digitizing. Modern GIS technology can automate this process fully for large projects using scanning technology; smaller jobs may require some manual digitizing table (совместимый). Today many types of geographic data already exist in GIS-compatible formats.

2. Manipulation. It is likely that data types required for a particular GIS project will need to be transformed or manipulated in some way to make them compatible with your system. For example, geographic information is available at different scales (detailed street centerline files; less detailed census boundaries; and postal codes4 at a regional level). Before this information can be integrated, it must be transformed to the same scale (degree of detail or accuracy). This could be a temporary transformation for display purposes or a permanent one required for analysis. GIS technology offers many tools for manipulating spatial data and for weeding out5 unnecessary data.

3. Management. For small GIS projects it may be sufficient to store geographic information as simple files. However, when data volumes become large and the number of data users becomes more than a few, it is often best to use a database management system (DBMS) to help store, organize, and manage data. A DBMS is nothing more than computer software for managing a database. There are many different designs of DBMSs, but in GIS the relational design6 has been the most useful. In the relational design, data are stored conceptually as a collection of mon fields in different tables are used to link them together. This surprisingly simple design has been so widely used primarily because of its flexibility and very wide deployment (развертывание) in applications both within and without GIS.

4. Query and Analysis. Once you have a functioning GIS containing your geographic information, you can begin to ask simple questions such as:

-  Who owns the land parcel on the corner?

-  How far is it between two places?

-  Where is land zoned for industrial use? And analytical questions such as:

-  Where are all the sites suitable for building new houses?

-  What is the dominant soil type for oak forest?

-  If I build a new highway here, how will traffic be affected?

GIS provides both simple point-and-click query capabilities7 and sophisticated analysis tools to provide timely information to managers and analysts alike.

5. Proximity Analysis.

-  How many houses lie within 100 m of this water main?

-  What is the total number of customers within 10 km of this store?

-  What proportion of the alfalfa (люцерна) crop is within 500 m of the well?

To answer such questions, GIS technology uses a process called buffering to determine the proximity relationship between features.

6. Overlay Analysis. The integration of different data layers involves a process called overlay (наложение). At its simplest, this could be a visual operation, but analytical operations require one or more data layers to be joined physically. This overlay, or spatial join8, can integrate data on soils, slope, and vegetation, or land ownership with tax assessment.

7. Visualization. For many types of geographic operation the end result is best visualized as a map or graph. Maps are very efficient at storing and communicating geographic information. While cartographers have created maps for millennia, GIS provides new and exciting tools to extend the art and science of cartography. Map displays can be integrated with reports, three-dimensional views, photographic images, and other output such as multimedia.

Notes:

1. query and statistical analysis	запрос и статистический анализ
2. critical geographic dimension	критические глобальные параметры
3. figuring out	выбор
4. postal codes	зоны почтовых индексов
5. for weeding out	для отбора …
6. relational design	реляционный тип
7. point-and-click query capabilities	здесь: способ поиска информации простым нажатием на кнопку
8. spatial join	пространственная привязка

Text 14