Английский язык (стр. 6 )

4. Fresh water is a precious commodity. Another problem is that of the intrusion of salt water into fresh-water streams. For many purposes, such as the protecting of municipal water supplies, we must know the shape, size, and position of the salt-water wedge. Usually, we sample the water, measure its chloride content, plot the sample points on a map, and contour the position and shape of the salt-water wedge. In contrast to the conventional method, the salt-water wedge in an estuary in Massachusetts was readily defined by infrared imagery4 obtained in a light aircraft, because the temperature of the ocean water differed from that of the river water.

Water pollution and the concentration of chemical and biological constituents of water are also commonly measured by sampling procedures or by continuously recording monitors. For a better definition of the effect of pollutants in a water body, we must know the distribution of those pollutants and the hydrodynamics of the water body.

Notes:

1. in all respects	во всех отношениях
2. the amount of dissolved	количество растворенных …
3. due to	из-за; благодаря
infrared imagery	по инфракрасному изображению

Text 35

THE PLANET’S DIMINISHING WETLANDS1

Since Roman times, the ever-increasing demand for new building and agricultural land has resulted in the systematic destruction of the planet’s wetlands. Up until 1970, this destruction was actively encouraged by government agencies which knew no better.

What are wetlands and why should we care? Wetlands are areas of land where water is periodically near or on the surface. They are regularly subject to flooding on timescales2 varying from hours to months. In ecological terms, wetlands – which are estimated to cover over six per cent of the planet’s total surface area – are extremely important. They provide unique habitats for wildlife and fauna. With ample (обильный) supplies of food in the typically shallow and brackish (солоноватый) waters, wetlands are particularly attractive to birds, offering unique nesting and breeding sites to numerous acting as «sinks»(слив, сток) at times of great water inundation, wetlands are also important for flood control. Furthermore, they can help purify waste water through the gradual elimination of toxic substances through sedimentation as the water velocity reduces after streams enter the wetland or by anaerobic and aerobic chemical processes.

Notes:

1. diminishing wetlands	исчезающие болота
2. subject to flooding on timescales	подвержены наводнению сезонно

Text 36

LASERS USED IN TROPICS FOR RESEARCH
ON CLIMATE, POLLUTION

1. Using a new laser tool that is fired1 toward the earth from an airplane, scientists are measuring more precisely the levels of gases and particles above tropical oceans and rain forests in an effort to understand the complex exchange of chemical elements between the earth and the lowest layer of its atmosphere. By scouring2 the troposphere, the blanket of air most important to living creatures, scientists from the Research Centre of the NASA can provide important information about acid rain, air pollution and global climatic conditions. The researchers conduct their experiments in the tropics, where steamy jungles and balmy seas discharge huge quantities of organic compounds into the atmosphere. They want to know if there are certain chemicals that originate in the tropical rain forest environment3 in sufficient quantities to influence the chemistry of the global atmosphere. The laser provides information on the exact altitudes and dimensions of dust clouds from Africa, giving scientists better access to floating treasure troves4 of solid particles and inert gases.

2. The NASA project is one of the first designed to examine remote regions free from man-made pollutants5, where scientists can observe the mechanics of atmospheric conditions and establish a point of reference to assess man’s impact elsewhere. The scientists from the United States and Brazil took samples from the lower part of the troposphere, the first 6 to 7 miles (9 to 11 kilometres) of atmosphere, to gauge6 the effects of deforestation in the region of the central Amazon River basin. The expedition, a joint venture7 by NASA and the Brazilian space agency undertook the first large-scale measurement of gases produced by a forest, in an effort to learn whether such gases may be key elements in the earth’s overall atmospheric chemistry, and if so, to determine their putting the data through theoretical models scientists will be able to predict what effects deforestation would have on the climate and air quality were it to continue at various levels.

3. From the Brazilian experiments and others, more is being learned about how natural sources of such gases as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and nitrous oxide interact with man-made pollutants. The project is also monitoring a possible decline in the atmospheric concentration of hydroxyls, small scavenger molecules8 that cleanse pollutants from the air, Mr. Harriss said. In daily flights over the Amazon and in flights over Guyana and the Atlantic Ocean east of Barbados, scientists used the new laser and other sensing devices that analyze the particles more closely (precisely) and render clues to the cloud’s origin.

Notes:

1. is fired	направлен
scouring	наблюдая за; выполняя исследования
3. in tropical rain forest environment	в районе экваториальных (тропических) лесов
4. floating treasure troves	«парящий» в воздухе клад
5. man-made pollutants	отравляющие вещества (частицы) – результат деятельности человека
6. to gauge	оценить
7. joint venture	совместный рискованный проект (затея)
8. small scavenger molecules	здесь: санитары

Text 37

ENVIRONMENT AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

1. In the middle of the 20th century, we saw our planet from space for the first time. Historians may eventually find1 that this vision had a greater impact on thought than did the Copernican revolution of the 16th century, which upset the human self-image by revealing that the Earth is not the center of the universe. From space, we see a small and fragile (хрупкий) ball dominated not by human activity and edifice2 but by a pattern of clouds, oceans, greenery, and soils. Humanity’s inability to fit its doings into that pattern is changing planetary systems, fundamentally. Many such changes are accompanied by life-threatening hazards. This new reality, from which there is no escape, must be recognized – and managed.

2. Throughout the world, in both developed and developing nations, the pressures on land and the need to achieve a balance between exploitation and conservation of land resources have lent urgency to resource management issues3. How can such massive problems as deforestation, desertification, and the greenhouse effect be forestalled?

The environment may be thought of as including all the physical, biological, and chemical factors that compose the surroundings of man, and may be distinguished in terms of continuing4, renewable, and non-renewable resources. The environment is the platform for all of man’s activities; it provides for current needs and future survival. It is a delicate balance of elements in which man often has
a disproportionate effect. In understanding the environmental dimension and in identifying the priorities for development and conservation, information on resources is a prerequisite.

3. Without accurate information about the lands and waters, and without an up-to-date inventory of a country’s resources and what is happening to them and to the environment, the government and the people are handicapped5 in controlling their own destiny. It is not possible to make best use of the land and natural wealth, or to prevent its misuse (злоупотребление) without good factual knowledge of the country (местность) and its features.

Notes:

1. may eventually find	могут наконец-то признать
2. edifice	здесь: технические сооружения
3. have lent urgency to resource management issues	здесь: привели к необходимости срочно решать насущные вопросы по управлению ресурсами
4. in terms of continuing	с учетом сохранения …
5. are handicapped	здесь: беспомощны

ECONOMICS

Text 38

FROM THE HISTORY OF ECONOMICS

1. Economics is a science studying economy. As a scholary discipline, economics is two centuries old. What exactly is the subject that the economists from Smith to Marx and to the present generation have analyzed? Economics is the study of how societies use scarce resources to produce valuable commodities and distribute them among different people. Some notable economists of the last century called economics «a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life»; «the science of choice among scare means to accomplish unlimited ends»; «the science of wealth».

The scope of economics is indicated by the facts with which it deals. These consist mainly of data on output, income, employment, expenditure, interest rates, prices and related magnitudes1 associated with individual activities of production2, transportation and trade. There are four major economic goals that are generally accepted. These goals are:

1) full employment;

2) price stability;

3) economic growth;

4) an equitable distribution of income.

2. The first scientist who made extraordinary contributions to economics was Adam Smith. After two centuries Adam Smith remains a towering figure3 in the history of economic thought (мысль). A. Smith was born in 1723 in a small but thriving fishing town Kirkcadly (population 1 500) situated not very far from Edinburgh, Scotland. His father was a customs officer (controller of customs). He died before his son was born. Adam received his elementary education (schooling) in his native town. At the age of 14, in 1737, A. Smith entered the University of Glasgow. When he was 28 A. Smith became Professor of Logic at this university. It was his first academic appointment. Some time later he became a tutor4 to a wealthy Scottish duke. A bit later he received a grant of £ 3 000 a year. It was a very big sum, 10 times the average income at that time. With the financial security of this grant, Smith devoted 10 years to writing his work which founded economic science. It’s full title was: «An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations». It was published with great success in 1776. His contribution was to analyze the way that markets organized economic life and produced rapid economic growth. He showed that a system of prices and markets is able to coordinate people and business without any central direction.

3. New technologies were being invented and applied to the manufacture of cotton and wool, iron, transportation and agriculture at that time. A. Smith was keenly interested in these events. He wanted to understand the sources of economic wealth, and he understood that; the division of labour; and free domestic and international markets are the main factors of economic wealth. A. Smith identified the division of labour as the source of «the greatest improvement in the productive powers of labour». The division of labour became even more productive when applied to creating new technologies. Scientists and engineers, trained in extremely narrow fields, became specialists at inventing. Their powerful skills speeded the advance of technology. Machines started performing repetitive operations faster, and more accurately than people.

But A. Smith said, that the fruits of the division of labour are limited by the extent of the market. To make the market as large as possible, there must be no impediments (препятствие) to free trade both within a country and among countries. He said: «When each person makes the best possible economic choice based on self-interest, that choice leads as if by an invisible hand to the best outcome (выход; результат) for society as a whole».

Notes:

1. related magnitudes	соответствующие объемы
2. individual activities of production	отдельные виды производства
3. a towering figure	выдающаяся личность
4. a tutor	преподаватель (здесь: репетитор)

Text 39

THE ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT

1. The economy comprises millions of people and thousands firms as well as the government and local authorities, all taking decisions about prices and wages, what to buy, sell, produce, export, import and many other matters. All these organizations and the decisions they take play a prominent part in shaping the business environment1 in which firms exist and operate. The economy is complicated and difficult to control and predict, but it is certainly important to all businesses. Economics promotes a better understanding of the nature and organization of different societies, the arguments underlying many of the great public issues of the day, and the operation and behaviour of business firms and other decision-making units. Economics relates to many problems in the real world. Every human society – whether it is an advanced industrial nation, a centrally planned economy, or an isolated tribal society – must confront and resolve three fundamental and interdependent economic problems, they are:

a) What commodities are to be produced and in what quantities?

b) How will goods be produced? By whom and with what resources and in what technological manner are they to be produced?

c) For whom will goods be produced?

These three basic problems are common to all economies. But different societies take different approaches in solving them. The three economic tasks of every society are really about choices among economy’s resources. A resource is a material or service that is used to make goods or services.

2. Productive Resources. Productive resources consist of what is required to produce the goods and services that people want. There are the following basic categories of productive resources:

Human resources – people are the most important resources of any organization. Some firms believe that their employees are their most important assets (капитал). To keep employees content2, a variety of incentives are used, including higher-than-average pay, flexible working hours, recreational facilities, lengthy paid vacations, cafeterias offering inexpensive meals, the health, education and skills of people. The number of people available for work and the hours they work constitute only one dimension of human resources. Another dimension is the level of ability of people and their motivation.

3. Financial resources are the funds the organization uses to meet (отвечать) obligations to various creditors. A grocery store obtains money from customers and uses a portion of that money to pay the wholesalers from which it buys food. A large bank, borrows and lends money. A college obtains money in the form of tuition, income from its (endowments), and federal grants. It uses the money to pay utility bills, insurance premiums, and professors’ salaries. Each of these transactions involves financial resources. Finally, many organizations increasingly find they cannot ignore information. External environment – including the economy, consumer markets, technology, politics, and cultural forces – are all changing so rapidly that an organization that does not adapt, will probably not survive. And, to adapt to change, the organization must know what is changing and how it is panies are finding it increasingly important to gather information about their competitors in today’s business environment. It is important to realize that these are only general categories of resources. Within each category are hundreds or thousands of specific resources, from which management must choose those that can best accomplish its goals. Managers must coordinate this complex group of specific resources to produce goods and services.

5. Natural resources – the gifts of nature that are used to produce goods and services. They include land, timber, fish, oil and mineral deposits, the fertility of soil, climatic conditions and so on.

6. Capital goods (material resources) – are physical materials and the equipment used by an organization to make a product. For example, cars are made on assembly lines. These assembly lines and the buildings that house them are material resources. The buildings, equipment, roads and other manufactured and constructed things needed to produce or provide access to other goods and to supply services.

Notes:

1. in shaping the business environment	в формировании бизнес-среды
2. employees content	состав служащих

Text 40

THE ENTERPRISE SYSTEM

What is business? Business is the production, distribution, and sale of goods and services for a profit. Earlier business simply meant exchange or trade for things people wanted or needed.

1. Business enterprises exist to allow people to effectively produce and distribute goods and services that are needed in our society. Very simply, those that fail to do this will fail and disappear in the long run (в конечном итоге). To survive, a business must accurately appraise the needs of people that can be served by resources that are available to them and serve these needs effectively. Business activities so designed will result in profits-incentives for people to continue to operate a business and means to expand and improve the enterprise.

2. A portion of profits, of course, is paid in taxes, thus supporting governmental activities in the interest of the general public. In the process of earning profits, revenues earned also support activities of other needed business functions: producing economic goods and services, providing livelihood and meaningful careers for individuals. If there were no business organizations, or profits, there would be no incentives or basis for exchanging goods and services. Everyone would be on his own to survive in this world. Our business enterprise system (US), the most advanced in the world, has brought unprecedented prosperity to our society. There is every reason to expect that it will continue to respond to man’s changing needs and his changing environment.

3. A business is an organization, a complex of jobs and relationships and technology for production of goods and services. It is an impersonal «IT» that lives longer than any of its managers or employees. But a company is more than an «IT». A company is an association of real, live people. Only through the efforts of different people – managers, employees, stockholders, customers, and others, can the organization achieve its objectives.

Where Revenues Go

Wages and salaries are paid for Labor

Rent is paid for the use of property, such as Land

Interest is paid for the use of financial Capital

Dividends are paid for the risk of Ownership

Taxes are paid for the Public Good

People who work for Wages and Salaries are obviously important to a business organization. They provide the Labor that is essential in performing tasks for achievement of the organization’s objectives. People who own the land, buildings, and equipment used by a business organization contribute directly to the life of the enterprise through their Property. These people receive Rent in payment for their contribution. A business may use money to purchase land, equipment, supplies, raw materials, and pay business expenses. When this money is borrowed, Interest is the payment for this important contribution to the firm’s survival. We call such money or financial resources Capital. Another source of capital is Ownership of the business. The money the owners put into the company is a major resource that is used to finance business activities. Owners assume the risk that the business will succeed or fail. Their rewards are Dividends when the business succeeds, and is profitable.

4. Doing Business. A business enterprise that is owned by one person who receives all of the profits earned and assumes all of the risks of doing business is a Proprietorship. In this type of enterprise, the proprietor or owner is usually the manager of the business and does quite a bit of the work himself. Most sole proprietorships are small businesses. The advantages of doing business as a sole (individual) proprietor are flexibility, freedom of action and a sense of entrepreneurship, simplicity, low taxes, and ease of getting started in business. Disadvantages include an unlimited personal liability for debts of the business, lack of capital, and so on.

5. A business enterprise that is owned by two or more individuals as co-partners who agree to divide profits and losses is called a Partnership. In a partnership, as in a proprietorship, the owners have unlimited personal liability for the debts of the business. That’s still a disadvantage. There is such a thing as a Limited partnership, in which a partner may be liable only to the extent of his investment, but it is not very common. A partnership may provide added financial strength to a business, more talent and managerial strength by bringing a number of people together as co-owners. Their success really depends on the nature of the business, the attitudes and abilities and resources of the partners, and the circumstances.

6. A business enterprise that is owned by a number of people through shares of stock is a Corporation. Unlike the other two forms of enterprise, a corporation is an entity created by law – a «person» established by law. Owners, or stockholders, are liable for debts only to the extent of their investment. Managers are employees of the corporation and so have a different interest than proprietors or partners. Corporations have the organizational and legal structure that permits large-scale business activities, capital (money) to be raised by issuing stock1, and specialized talent to be retained for doing business. Corporations are most often large firms, which conduct the majority of business in our economy. It costs money to establish a corporation – for legal fees, state fees and taxes.

7. Private limited companies, unlike public corporations, have a limited number of owners – at least two, but usually not more than fifty members, who provide the capital which is divided into shares. Some private corporations are large firms. But most are small companies in which all or most stock is held by family members. Shares can be transferred only by the agreement of other shareholders and cannot be offered for sale to the general public. A private limited company has limited liability and this is indicated by the letters LTD after its name.

The business corporation is not the only type of corporation that exists. Educational, religious and charitable institutions are also permitted to incorporate. Usually this type of corporation does not issue stock and is a nonprofit institution. If there is a profit, it is generally reinvested in the institution rather than distributed to private stockholders. Nonprofit corporations, such as the Red Cross, provide community services. They consist of members instead of stockholders and provide no dividends. In addition, there are governmental corporations which may be established by cities, states, the federal government and special agencies. Some examples of these governmental corporations are state universities, state hospitals, city-owned utilities2. They provide certain welfare functions. Governmental corporations are always nonprofit and usually do not issue stock certificates.

Notes:

1. issuing stock	выпуская акции
2. city-owned utilities	городские коммунальные службы

Text 41

TYPES OF MARKETS

1. Markets are institutional arrangements (учреждение) that enable buyers and sellers to exchange goods and services. Markets work best when they are reasonably competitive, when buyers and sellers have access to sufficient reliable information, when resources are relatively mobile and free to move from one use to another in response to changing conditions, and when market prices reflect the full costs and benefits incurred in producing and exchanging goods and services.

2. There are two types of markets according to the character of concluded contracts: spot markets (the buying and selling of goods, currency or securities that are available for immediate delivery) and futures markets (the buying and selling of goods, currency or securities for delivery at a future date, a price fixed in advance).

3. There are three types of markets according to their function: commodity markets\exchanges, stock markets\exchanges, foreign exchange markets.

Commodity markets\exchange are the places where raw materials and some manufactured goods are bought and sold for immediate or future delivery. Main terminal markets (форвардные рынки) are situated in London and New York. Terminal markets are the markets dealing mainly with commodities that will be available in the future rather than goods that are available immediately. Most terminal markets are outside the countries that produce the goods.

Stock markets\exchanges are the markets where stocks and shares are bought and sold under fixed rules, but at prices controlled by supply and demand. The main idea of stock exchanges is to enable public companies, the state and local authorities to attract capital by way of selling securities to investors.

Foreign exchange markets are the markets where foreign currencies are traded.

Text 42

MARKETING

Marketing is a new science. It is based on understanding consumer values, wants and needs. There are some fundamental principles for a marketer. Market research is the basic one. Producers must know why, where, for what purpose the consumers buy. Market research helps the producer to predict what the people will want. It is also of great importance to determine the grouping to which the customer or business belongs. Every market is usually divided into separate groups according to the demographic factors like age, income, educational background, job or occupation, size of family, type of home and the psychographic ones like customer's opinions and interest, hobbies, favourite sports etc. That is the second principle. The third principle is to create a choice: a difference in price, concept or value that will distinguish the product of your company from that of your competitors.

Marketing includes all the business activities, which are connected with the movement of goods and services from producers to consumers. Sometimes it is called distribution. Marketing operations include product planning, buying, storage, pricing, promotion, selling, credit, traffic and marketing research. Marketing operations are very expensive. They take up more than half of the consumer’s dollar.

Text 43

PERSONAL FINANCE

1. Financial planning is something that concerns all of us. The most important aspect of taking control of your personal finances is to plan ahead properly. Your financial planning needs will largely be determined by where you are in life - single or couple, with or without dependent children, working or retired – and by the resources you have at your disposal. Life assurance is likely to be a bigger priority if you have a young family than if you are single with no dependants, for example. But it is also important to be clear about your1 own financial goals. This is particularly true with regard to long-term investment plans, where the amount of time you intend to maintain your investments and the purpose to which they are going to be put should have an important bearing on the type of investments you choose. But the same logic should also apply throughout your financial planning.

Most of us will not have the resources to do everything we want, so it is important to set realistic priorities, and that requires careful thought. It goes without saying2 that the earlier you start your financial planning, the more effective it is likely to be.

2. Teenagers. Financial life really starts at 16 when most people get their first part-time – or full-time-job. We move from being reliant on our parents for pocket money to earning our own money and the financial freedom that brings with it. It is in our teens that we learn about the staples that make up our financial diet – the basics that will apply throughout our life. Forget the bread, paste and potatoes – the financial staples are earning, saving and spending. Most people take out their first bank account between the ages of 11 and 20, and even this seemingly simple step can be fraught with difficulty. We all have different needs from our bank accounts, and these vary with age and earnings. Recognizing this, the banks offer a vast array of accounts which, like pasta for example, come in every colour, shape and size.

Seventeen is the age of the car for most of us. Finally freedom hits us – we can go where we want, when we want, without having to rely on public transport, parents, siblings (родные братья и сестры) or friends to take us there.

Reaching 18 is the true coming of age in financial terms. We become financially «legal» and can own shares and other investments in our own right. It can also be a time for decision making – do we stay on in education and go to university or go out and get a job? People say that children today grow up more quickly. The law sometimes makes this possible. Look at the information below – how is the law different in your country?

YOUNG PEOPLE AND THE LAW

Age 13 may be employed part-time.

Age 14 allowed in bars but not to drink alcohol.

Age 15 legally a «young person» and not a «child».

Age 16 school leaving age, can leave home, drive a moped, marry with

parents’ consent (not needed in Scotland), buy beer with a meal.

Age 17 can drive a car or motorbike.

Age 18 age of majority – can vote, get married without parents’ consent,

own property, get tattooed, drink in pubs.

All jobs are different but there are a few similarities that link them all. The tax. In addition to tax, National Insurance (NI) is also payable out of our monthly salary. About a third of your wages is paid in tax and NI each month. National Insurance contributions are paid to entitle us to State benefits such as a pension, invalidity benefit, and statutory sick panies also offer other different sorts of benefit such as Private Medical Insurance, Permanent Health Insurance (income replacement schemes if you are unable to work for a long time) and Life Insurance.

3. Twenties. By now, you probably have a bank account and will have, or be starting, your first job. This age is, hopefully, the fun time. At first, you start to earn enough money to enjoy your new-found freedom, then comes a time to settle down and marry or live with a partner. You might also have children, buy a house and set up some longer term savings. Whatever you do it is likely to cost money. The biggest purchase you are likely to make is buying your first house. There comes a time for most of us when we are fed up with paying off someone else’s mortgage and we want and can afford to buy a place of our own. Getting the right mortgage is one of the most difficult decision making processes that you go through financially. The wrong decision can cost you a lot of money and, in the case of an endowment policy, be with you for up to 25 years.

4. Children. Some people want children from an early age, others when they have fulfilled certain career objectives, and others not at all. Children are expensive. You have to provide for them at least until the age of 16 – legally 18 – and probably for longer than that. The average cost of raising a child to age 16 is over £ 30,000 – an expensive bundle of joy. Before you (or your partner) get pregnant – providing it is planned – there is some research you should do. If it is unplanned, still do the research, but the results may be slightly different.

5. Retirement. WELL, you’ve made it. No more getting up for work every morning, standing in packed commuter trains3, traffic jams, taking the children to school – or doing pretty much anything you don’t want to. Now should be your time to eat smoked salmon and caviare for every meal, if you want to. If you haven’t made any provisions for your retirement, don’t despair – there are still some things you can do to increase your income. The first thing to do is to activate your pension – turn it into an income for you to live on.

6. Family life. A «typical» British family used to consist of mother, father and two children, but in recent years there have been many changes in family life. Some of these have been caused by new laws and others are the result of changes in society. For example, since the law made it easier to get a divorce4, the number of divorces has increased. In fact one marriage in every three now ends in divorce. This means that there are a lot of one-parent families. Society is now more tolerant than it used to be of unmarried people, unmarried couples and single parents.

Another change has been caused by the fact that people are living longer nowadays, and many old people live alone following the death of their partners. As a result of these changes in the pattern of people’s lives, there are many households (семьи) which consist of only one person or one adult and children. You might think that marriage and the family are not so popular as they once were. However the majority of divorced people marry again, and they sometimes take responsibility for a second family. In general, each generation is keen to become independent of parents in establishing its own family unit, this fact can lead to social as well as geographical differences within the larger family group.

8. Who looks after the older generation? There are about 10 million old-age pensioners in Britain, of whom about 750,000 cannot live entirely independently. The government gives financial help in the form of a pension but in the future it will be more and more difficult for the national economy to support the increasing number of elderly. At the present time, more than half of all old people are looked after at home. Many others live in Old Peoples’ Homes, which may be private or state-owned.

Notes:

1. to be clear about your	четко представлять …
2. it goes without saying	без сомнения
muter trains	электрички (пригородные поезда)
4. the law made it easier to get a divorce	закон упростил процедуру развода

Text 44

THE BRITISH MEDIEVAL MOSAIC

In the 11th century, England was an agricultural country; therefore the basis of society at those times, the foundation of its economy, was land. The wise idea of the new system introduced by William was that all land in the country was owned by the king but it was held by others.

Let’s recall a very important thing which, in fact, is a clue to the period under consideration. It’s that the basis of feudalism was a feudum, a contract, an exchange of services between people, and in many instances those contracts and exchanges were a matter of a person’s free choice. That is true, in a degree, even in regard to the lower classes (excluding slaves, of course, but their proportion in the society was never large). In a village there took place an exchange of land for labor: the landlord granted land to peasants, while the latter worked a fixed number of days on his land. The word «farm», by the way, clearly reflects that practice, for it comes from the Latin firma, meaning a fixed payment, a rent, a settled agreement, and it wasn’t until the 16th century that the farm came to mean a piece of land. This is not to say that the people were «free» in the way they came to be free, say, in the 19th or 20th centuries – nothing of the kind, of course. Once an agreement was reached, it was to be kept, and the villagers who got their land from the landlord were not free to leave it or their lord’s service without permission. But such was the custom, the Law (with capital letter), the spirit of the epoch. Anyway, a villager’s life under his lord’s protection was better than the life of a wanderer. Besides, in Britain many landlords found it more profitable to let out almost all of their own lands, and thus to be paid in money or crops; among other things, this practice led to the development of crafts, and the general, though slow and gradual, emancipation of the lower classes.

LITERATURE

1. . Пособие по переводу технических текстов с английского языка на русский. – М.: «Высшая школа», 1982 г.

2. . Английские общенаучные тексты. – М.: «Наука», 1982 г.

3. , . Сборник общенаучных текстов на английском языке. – М.: «Высшая школа», 1974 г.

4. The New Encyclopedia Britanica, 1994 г.

5. American Scientist. The Scientific Research Society, 2001 г.

6. Eurosense Experts in Remote Sensing, 1997 г.

7. GIM International, 2002 г.

8. «Optics News» (American scientific Journal), 1999 г.

9. Technology, Products, and Services (The world’s leading events), 2003 г.

10. Issues in Business (An Introduction to American Enterprise), 1993 г.

CONTENTS

Text 1. M. V. Lomonosov (1711–1765)........................................................ 3

PHYSICS AND OPTICS.............................................................................. 5

Text 2. The people of physics....................................................................... 5

Text 3. Franklin, Benjamin (1706–1790)...................................................... 6

Text 4. Einstein’s researches on the nature of light....................................... 7

Text 5. History of the production of optical instruments............................ 11

METROLOGY............................................................................................ 12

Text 6. Metrology....................................................................................... 12

Text 7. Metric system and its origin............................................................ 13

Text 8. Units of measurement..................................................................... 15

INFORMATION SYSTEMS...................................................................... 15

Text 9. Charles Babbage (1791–1871)........................................................ 15

Text 10. Information science....................................................................... 17

Text 11. The problem of control................................................................. 18

Text 12. National information management................................................ 19

Text 13. What is a GIS?.............................................................................. 20

GIS tasks....................................................................................... 21

Text 14. GIS................................................................................................ 22

Text 15. What is geomatics?....................................................................... 25

Text 16. Geomatic engineering.................................................................... 27

CADASTRE............................................................................................... 28

Text 17. Cadastre........................................................................................ 28

Text 18. Resource management................................................................... 31

Text 19. Two pilot sites to test methodology.............................................. 32

Text 20. The representation of artificial features......................................... 33

GEODESY.................................................................................................. 34

Text 21. Washington, George (1732–1799)................................................ 34

Text 22. Sir. George Everest (1790–1866).................................................. 36

The conquest of Everest................................................................ 36

Text 23. Geodesy........................................................................................ 37

Text 24. Elements of geodetic methodology................................................ 39

Text 25. Classification of methods of data collection in GIS/LIS................ 41

Text 26. The surveyor and information systems......................................... 42

CARTOGRAPHY....................................................................................... 43

Text 27. Mercator, Gerardus (1512–1594)................................................. 43

Text 28. MAP............................................................................................. 44

Text 29. MAP projection............................................................................ 45

Text 30. The Royal observatory at Greenwich............................................ 47

ECOLOGY.................................................................................................. 48

Text 31. Ecology......................................................................................... 48

Text 32. Geologists making a diagnosis...................................................... 49

Text 33. Protection of the biosphere........................................................... 50

Text 34. The importance of water............................................................... 51

Text 35. The planet’s diminishing wetlands................................................ 53

Text 36. Lasers used in tropics for research on climate, pollution.............. 53

Text 37. Environment and resource management....................................... 55

ECONOMICS............................................................................................. 56

Text 38. From the history of economics...................................................... 56

Text 39. The economic environment........................................................... 57

Text 40. The enterprise system................................................................... 59

Text 41. Types of markets.......................................................................... 61

Text 42. Marketing...................................................................................... 62

Text 43. Personal finance............................................................................ 62

Text 44. The British medieval mosaic......................................................... 65

LITERATURE............................................................................................ 66

Учебное издание

Никулина Людмила Михайловна

СБОРНИК

ОБЩЕНАУЧНЫХ И ТЕХНИЧЕСКИХ ТЕКСТОВ

НА АНГЛИЙСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ

для магистрантов, студентов 1-го, 2-го курсов заочного, дневного
и вечернего отделений по специальностям академии

Часть 2

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