Английский язык (стр. 4 )

3. SPOT thus enabled boundaries previously established by the government to be redrawn to reflect field survey data. The rich details of SPOT imagery contributed greatly to the success of this project, and the results from the two test sites in Mali will certainly encourage the authorities to extend the methodology to the rest of the country. SPOT data’s inherent benefits make it easy to see roads, tracks, villages and other landmark features, while providing the «big picture» necessary for effective land tenure surveying.

Notes:

1. pilot	здесь: опытный
2. SPOT panchromatic images	спутниковые изображения
3. the land allocation system	система распределения земли
4. highlighting land parcels	участки первостепенной важности

Text 20

THE REPRESENTATION OF ARTIFICIAL FEATURES

1. International boundaries. International boundaries are the major divisions on the Earth’s surface, and because human societies often compete for control of the Earth’s resources, they frequently represent the lines or zones of friction or conflict. They may be determined by force or by agreement. In many cases, disputes about international boundaries are settled by agreement. Causes of dispute may occur through a change in the value of the land concerned, especially along undefined frontiers. For example, although an area of desert between two states, virtually uninhabited, may serve as a frontier zone in which there is so little interest that there is no conflict, the discovery of a resource such as petroleum may lead to a change in the economic value of the area concerned; in which case the exact location of the boundary line becomes critical.

The term frontier generally applies to the outer limit of settlement of any people. It may or may not be coincident with a boundary, because boundaries are divisions, not just limits.

2. Description, delimitation1, and demarcation. International boundaries on land involve description, delimitation, and demarcation. Most international boundaries are described in treaties: these descriptions may be very general, consisting only of references to major geographical features, such as rivers and watersheds, or geographical points and lines expressed in longitude and latitude. Although these may serve political purposes, the actual delimitation of the boundary in relation to the Earth’s surface, although a treaty may describe the boundary as following the watershed between two peaks, the position of this on the ground may be very difficult to determine exactly. Where two countries wish to delimit the boundary, it is usually necessary to agree on a precise delimitation, which depends in turn2 on the interpretation of the treaty in relation to the actual ground. Frequently such treaties were concluded in the past without any adequate knowledge of the topography, and therefore lead to difficulties which have to be resolved. Once the position of the boundary has been agreed on, it is necessary to demarcate it, that is3 to actually mark its position on the ground. Only in very unusual circumstances is this done by creating a continuous topographic structure4, unless this is required for defensive reasons. Normally it is marked by boundary posts at intervals. In forested country it is normal to clear (расчистить) the forest along the boundary line between boundary monuments. The connection of maps with5 boundary demarcation and delimitation is twofold. In the first place it may be necessary to provide a detailed topographic map in order to allow delimitation to be carried out. Or it may be necessary to construct a detailed topographic map to record the demarcated boundary.

3. Status of boundaries. As with property boundaries, international boundaries are not uniform. They vary in a number of ways, depending on the nature and state of agreement applied to them, the extent of delimitation and demarcation, and their acceptance by other nations. The most important classes are as follows.

De jure boundaries are those agreed and accepted by treaty and recognized by other nations. De facto boundaries are those which exist and are enforced by at least one country. They are frequently disputed by other countries, and therefore only have limited recognition. Even so, they are the boundaries enforced on the ground, and therefore are significant in terms of human movement and communication. Cease-fire lines, armistice lines, and other provisional (временный) boundaries are intended to be de facto boundaries until a boundary dispute is settled by treaty.

Notes:

1. delimitation	размежевание (определение границ)
2. in turn	в свою очередь
3. that is	то есть
4. continuous topographic structure	здесь: линейное сооружение на местности
5. the connection of maps with	взаимосвязь карт …

GEODESY

Text 21

WASHINGTON, GEORGE (1732–1799)

1. G. Washington is remembered as a great general, as one of the founders of the Republic, and as the first President of the United States. The story of George Washington is the story of the beginning of the United States.

2. His great-grandfather had emigrated from England in protest after king George I was defeated by Lord Cromwell. He settled in the newly formed colony of Virginia, married the daughter of a Virginia landowner, and soon became prominent in the affairs of the colony. George’s father acquired more land, including the property along the Potomac River, later to be called Mt. (mount) Vernon and like his father and grandfather became a county justice1.

3. George was scarcely in his teens when his father died and his eldest brother Lawrence became the head of the family and he strongly influenced on George Washington’s life. At 16 George went to live with his brother at Mt. Vernon. Lawrence’s father-in-law, old Lord Fairfax owned at least a million of acres of land stretching far into the western mountains of Virginia. Not sure just where his boundaries lay, he sent George on a surveying trip2 with his young son.

4. Besides the chance to practice the surveying, a skill he had already acquired in the expedition, gave George his first close contact with Indians. Ambitions were forming in the silent, determined young man. Soon George was making his living3 as a surveyor and buying up land with his earnings. At 19 he was a prosperous landowner with a promising future. When his brother died (he had problems with lungs), George took over the management of Mt. Vernon, continued his surveying practice and when he was just 21 Governor Dinwiddie appointed him to Lawrence’s former post, Adjutant in the Virginia militia with the rank of Major. Up to this time Washington’s dream had been territorial expansion – for himself and for the colony. He had inherited Mt. Vernon from Lawrence’s widow, and this, added to his other holdings, made him one of the largest landowners in the colony.

5. The loosely organized colonies needed a single military commander to unify their forces. Washington was the perfect choice. After independence was won, a new government had to be formed. All that required a leader with such qualities as physical strength, youth and determination. Young George possessed those qualities. He had a heritage of strong ideals and patriotic leadership. A general was needed for the American Army and what better man could be chosen than this Virginia hero whose whole life had been preparation for such a responsibility. George Washington was unanimously (единогласно) elected commander-in-chief of the armed forces of the United Colonies.

6. It soon became apparent that total independence was the colonists’ goal, and on July 4, Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. Washington had successfully led the first democratic revolution in history. In May of 1787 representatives from all the colonies were summoned to Philadelphia to draw up a constitution for a federal government. Washington represented Virginia, and now was looked upon (рассматривался) as the natural leader, he was made chairman of the Constitutional Convention.

7. The Constitution was finally adopted in 1788 and it provided for a Chief Executive to be selected by electors from each state. Their unanimous choice was G. Washington and on April 30, 1703, Washington became the first President of the United States of America. After two terms of office, weared of politics, feeling old and tired, he refused to serve a third term. The last three years of his life were spent in peaceful retirement at Mt. Vermont, where he died on December 14, 1799.

These some words characterise wise ruler. This man as brilliant, leader «…possessed of power, possessed of an extensive influence, he never used it but for the benefit of his country». The image of this man and his ideals have become one in the minds of many.

Notes:

1. a county justice	судья округа
2. on a surveying trip	в геодезическую экспедицию
3. was making his living	зарабатывал на жизнь

Text 22

SIR. GEORGE EVEREST (1790–1866)

1. George Everest was a British geodesist. He was born in Wales on July 4, 1790. He is known as a man who performed (completed) trigonometrical survey1 in India on a large scale in 1841, on which depended the accurate mapping of the subcontinent. Distinguishing himself2 during engineering training at military school in England, George Everest joined East India Company in 1806 and served the next seven years in Bengal.

2. During the British occupation of the Dutch East Indies, George Everest worked on the survey of Java (1814 – 1816) then returned to India. From 1818 – until 1843, except for two leaves to recover his health, he worked on the survey of India as superintendent from 1823 and as surveyor general from 1830. During his term as surveyor general, Everest introduced the most accurate surveying instruments of the day; in the course of the project, Everest and his predecessors measured the meridian arc of 11,5 degrees from the Himalayas to Cape Cameroon, the southern tip of India.

G. Everest was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1827 and knighted in 1861. George Everest died in 1866 in December. It is after him that mount Everest, the world’s highest peak, was named in 1865.

THE CONQUEST OF EVEREST

1. Mount Everest, 29,002 feetm) high is situated on the border of Tibet and Nepal. Since the end of the nineteenth century climbers (альпинисты) have been ambitious to conquer Everest and stand on the highest point of land in the world. On Friday, 29 May 1953, two members of the British Everest Expedition succeeded in reaching the top. Before the successful climb of 1953 there had been ten other expeditions. The first attempts were made from the north, after permission had been obtained from the ruler of Tibet. The first expeditions were organized jointly (совместно) by the Alpine Club and the Royal Geographic Society.

2. The aim of the 1921 expedition was to examine the mountain and the surrounding area, and find a route (маршрут) by which a later expedition might hope to reach the top. The climbers were successful in mapping possible routes up the mountain from the north, the north-east, and the north-west. The exploration and map-making of the earlier expeditions were of the greatest value to the climbers who won a success in 1953.

3. Snow and ice are not the climber’s greatest enemies on Everest. One of the greatest difficulties on Everest is the thin (разрежённый) air at such immense heights. The amount of oxygen in the air between 28,000 and 29,000 feet on Everest is only about one-third amount at sea-level. Each step forward needs an immense effort of body and mind. The latest expeditions have to take with them supplies with artificial oxygen3. Both climbers and porters (носильщики) have to get used to climbing with large oxygen cylinders.

4. Another very serious difficulty is the climate. There are only two very short periods each year when climbing is possible. The three weeks before mid-June, are the best for making climbing. Members of Everest expeditions must acclimatize themselves. They must get used to the thin air of the Himalayan heights. They do this by spending as many weeks as possible in the high mountain country.

5. The success of the 1953 expedition was a triumph for its members but it was a triumph that was shared by members of all previous expeditions. It was the experience, won by hard effort of earlier climbers, including those of the Swiss expedition of 1952. That made success possible in 1953.

Notes:

1. preformed trigonometrical survey	выполнил крупномасштабную съемку
2. distinguishing himself	отличившись во время учебы; здесь: получив хорошее образование (подготовку)
3. supplies with artificial oxygen	здесь: баллоны с кислородом

Text 23

GEODESY

1. Definition and Scope (содержание). Geodesy is that branch of surveying which takes into account the size and shape of the earth. The work includes the determination of the size and shape of the earth as well as the exact position of points on its surface. These tasks require astronomical observations for time, latitude, longitude and azimuth; triangulation including the measurement of the force of gravity, terrestrial magnetism and the deviation of the plumb-bob; leveling and sounding of oceans, lakes, and rivers, which in turn necessitates the determination of mean-sea level and study of tides and currents. These measurements are subject to1 certain unavoidable errors. After all known errors have been eliminated, the method of least squares is used to determine the most probable values of the observed quantities2.

2. The last century opened a new era for geodesy. It had to do so because geodesy faced new problems, which the classic methods were not able to solve. In earlier times, most countries were satisfied to have their own geodetic control point systems3. For that purpose even poor dimensions4 of the earth and the classic arc-measuring method were sufficient. It did not matter how much the control point systems of various countries differed from one another. During the last century, however, the geodesists have had to join to the same system not only the geodetic systems of various countries, but of different continents as well. In order to do this, we have to know the accuracy of the dimensions of the earth as well as its detailed shape.

3. Surveying, the examining, measuring and mapping of land. It (surveying) determines the position of points on or near the earth’s surface through applied mathematics and the use of specialized equipment and techniques. The term «earth’s surface» designates all of the earth that can be explored – the bottoms of seas, bays, lakes and rivers; the interiors of mines and caverns; mountains and deserts; and the frozen-waste lands of the polar regions. Basically, surveying determines horizontal distances and angles, directions, elevation differences and angles. Surveying has been an essential element in the development of man’s environment for so many centuries that its importance is often forgotten. Surveying in many countries dates from the time of the first settlements when it became necessary to establish ownership of property. The early survey system was one of metes and bounds5, which was irregular, involved (сложный), and confusing.

4. Types of surveys. There are several types of surveys and they are made for a variety of purposes, such as the establishment of horizontal and vertical control points6, the production of maps and charts showing relief, hydrography, and culture (искусственные сооружения) of a region (topographic survey), the measurement of land areas (land), the determination of the location of a road, railroad, bridge, dam, the construction of highways and structures or other civil engineering projects.

5. Land Surveying. The purposes of land surveying are to subdivide large parcels of land into smaller ones, to determine the size and shape of existing parcels so that deed descriptions7 can be written to permit its legal transfer, and to attempt to relocate the lines of earlier surveys which may have become obliterated. In the older sections of any country, the boundaries of many farms are natural ones, such as watercourses, tops of ridges, or bottoms of valleys. The restoration of original corners is often a difficult assignment, calling for considerable skill and infinite patience in the search for possible remains of the original corners. The first step in making the survey was to establish an initial point near the centre of the area being subdivided.

Surveying was essential at the dawn of history, and some of the most significant scientific discoveries could never have been implemented were it not for the contribution of surveying. Except for minor details of techniques and the use of one, or two minor hand-held instruments8 surveying is much the same throughout the world.

Notes:

1. are subject to	подвержены чему-либо
2. observed quantities	измеряемые величины (параметры)
3. geodetic control point systems	система координат
4. poor dimensions	здесь: неточные размеры
5. metes and bounds	пределы, границы (юридические)
6. horizontal and vertical control points	пункты планово-высотного обоснования
7. deed descriptions	фактические результаты
8. hand-held instruments	переносные инструменты

Text 24

ELEMENTS OF GEODETIC METHODOLOGY1

Geodetic theory (теоретическая геодезия)

1. To fulfill all its functions, geodesy must span a spectrum of activities ranging from purely theoretical aspects, needed in laying theoretical foundations for the various geodetic techniques, to field data collection. Accordingly, there are geodesists who specialize in theory and those who specialize in the practice of geodesy. The latter include fields like control surveys and gravimetry.

General procedure

2. Geodetic methodology is a set of procedures adopted for the evaluation of quantities2 that contribute directly or indirectly to the description of the geometry of the earth and its gravity field. Every experiment or project should be designed around specifications placed on the quantities that are being investigated. The design thus comprises the determination of the kind and amount of data that need to be collected as well as their accuracies. These data are then procured, screened, and analyzed to see whether they actually fulfill the prescribed accuracy specifications. Once scrutinized, these data are processed, and solutions are obtained for the quantities of interest. Finally, the results are evaluated and presented.

3. The most significant factor affecting the practice of geodesy, as with other sciences, is economics. Often, geodetic operations involve expensive instrumentation and extensive field operations that result in large expenditures. For example, the establishment of a single geodetic network of continental extent (whether it be a gravity, horizontal, or height network) can cost tens of millions of dollars.

4. To achieve its aims, geodesy uses a variety of measuring techniques and systems. They range from simple to complicated, from terrestrial to extraterrestrial (воздушного базирования) and from purely geodetic to those that are usually recognized as belonging to geophysics, oceanography, or astronomy and to space science.

5. Geodetic practice, by its nature, requires not only geodetic professional scientists and engineers – but also technicians and auxiliary personnel. It has been estimated that world geodetic works connected with mapping alone employ someprofessionals, ≈technicians, and ≈auxiliary personnel. Of these, about 60 % are governmental employees, and 40 % are from the private sector. The cost of these works totals about $525 million. Unfortunately, no such estimates exist for other geodetic activities, but it would not be too surprising to find that they consume at least the same amount of money annually.

6. The practice of geodesy in some countries is almost entirely in the hands of the military. While in many cases this proves to be a distinct advantage, in other cases it is to the detriment (вред, ущерб) of the profession, particularly when all the geodetic works are done only in support of military mapping.

Geodetic profession

7. Geodetic personnel may be categorized into scientists, engineers, technicians, and auxiliary personnel. These categories differ by education or experience or both of them. A geodetic scientist should typically have a postgraduate degree (a Master or a Doctorate) from a university offering a specialization in geodesy. An engineer is the professional who bridges the gap between the theoretician (scientist) on the one hand and the technician on the other. This person must thus understand the languages of both these groups and be able to communicate freely with them. Specifically, a geodetic or surveying engineer3 should possess an undergraduate degree with geodesy as a major field. The engineer should have a good appreciation of the theory while at the same time have some of the basic skills requisite for the technicians. The surveying engineer should be capable of designing and supervising data collections, carrying out routine data analyses, and even solving small problems of a theoretical nature.

8. Geodesy being the theoretical foundation of surveying means, in practical terms, that a surveying engineer needs to know geodesy in much the same way as an electrical engineer needs to know electricity, a chemical engineer needs to know chemistry, or a mechanical engineer needs to know mechanics. A good understanding of the basics should be required but, compared with a geodetic scientist, the depth in the other topics should be reduced. The lack of the geodetic component in the educational formation reduces a surveying engineer to a surveying technician. A surveying technician (technologist) ideally should have a surveying diploma from a college or technological school. The technician should be well versed (сведущий, опытный) in the routine of various kinds of data collection with some understanding of what can be done, or is being done, with the collected data. Thus, among the variety of subjects a technician is taught, only a superficial (поверхностный, неглубокий) understanding of geodesy is needed. Nevertheless, that it is more important to give the future technician-technologist an idea of the full spectrum of geodesy than to teach a few tricks.

9. The employment opportunities for a geodesist are fairly diversified and relatively good at present. We would expect these opportunities to grow in the next few decades. While the geodetic scientists find careers almost exclusively in the academic world and with governmental institutions; surveying engineers and technician-technologists also find equally challenging positions in private enterprise.

Notes:

1. elements of geodetic methodology	принципы высшей геодезии
2. evaluation of quantities	оценка параметров (величин)
3. geodetic or surveying engineer	дипломированный инженер-геодезист (высокой квалификации)

Text 25

CLASSIFICATION OF METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION IN GIS/LIS

1. Spatial data collection is one of the fundamental steps in the creation of a land information system (LIS). The objective of GIS/LIS is to store, retrieve, transform, display, aggregate, and analyze spatial data to solve the complex environmental and social problems faced by decision-makers, planners, and local, state, and federal governments. Spatial data collection pertaining (имеющий отношение) to GIS/LIS may be classified into primary and secondary methods. The primary methods of spatial data collection refer to driving data directly from the field or from photographs. Secondary methods refer to processes in which data are derived from existing documents, such as maps, charts, graphs, etc.

2. Techniques of Geodesy. It must be emphasized that all primary methods of data acquisition require a frame of reference (geodetic networks) established by using geodetic surveying techniques, such as traditional terrestrial observations (theodolite, EDM); extraterrestrial processes such as satellite Doppler, Global Positioning System (GPS), photogeodesy, etc. The essential role of geodesy is to provide the point from which all the calculations and analysis of spatial data may be performed.

3. Techniques of surveying. Terrestrial surveying is the traditional method of spatial data (координаты) collection. Before the advent of photogrammetry, surveying was the sole method. The plane table (мензула) equipped with an alidade was the primary method of topographic surveying. Conventional surveying requires skilled and experienced field personnel1 who can not only observe angles, distances, and height differences accurately, but also can check the accuracy of the work right in the field. Introduction of the electronic theodolite, or the so-called total station2, has made conventional surveying easier and faster.

4. Surveying is a reliable and accurate method of data collection for GIS/LIS. However, it is not an economical method for areas larger than about 25 acres (» 0,4 га) since the accuracy of surveying is a function of not only the equipment but also the observational procedure, atmospheric conditions, distance between points, and number of occupied stations3, the errors over a block can accumulate quickly. Generally, photogrammetric methods are used to map large areas.

Notes:

1. skilled and experienced field personnel	опытный персонал полевиков
2. total station	опорная станция
3. occupied stations	пункты наблюдения

Text 26

THE SURVEYOR AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS

1. Throughout history, the land surveyor has been concerned with the acquisition, processing, and presentation of spatial data1. From the early days in Babylonia, through Roman times, the days of the early explorers, and the 19th, and 20th century expansion, the surveyor has been a measurer and mapper2. For the last two centuries, his expertise has been directed more at measurement science than at information. In the last decade or so, however, there has been a return to information science. The surveyor and the cartographer have become more concerned with3 meeting identifiable user needs4 and generating products, which, though retaining the integrity and quality of the raw data, are more clearly related to the information requirements of the data user.

2. The measurement science approach led the field surveyor to complain, with some degree of justification, that the cartographer degraded his product. Over the last decade or so, the cartographer has, through the use of computers and digital mapping systems, not only retained the old values but has also identified where the field surveyor’s measurements were inconsistent or in error. This apparent reversal of roles is, however, only superficial (поверхностный).

3. The surveyor has always been in the information business. His greatest resource is information. To survey is to collect data by measurement, and to provide surveying services is to process these data and provide them as information. Surveyor’s information is essential to planning the wise use of our land and to discovering and managing the natural resources it contains. As for the surveyor’s use of computers, one has but to visit a survey party in the field, or the surveyor’s place of business, or a mapping establishment to realize that the surveyor’s use of computer technology is common and widespread.

Notes:

1. spatial data	пространственное положение точек на местности
2. a measurer and mapper	землемер и картограф
3. have become more concerned with	здесь: стали больше работать
4. meeting … user needs	удовлетворять (отвечать) требованиям пользователя (клиента)
5. are springing up	создаются (организуются)

CARTOGRAPHY