27. natural science естествознание
28. sciences естественные науки
II. Answer the following questions:
6. What basic functions do psychologists study?
7. What position does psychology occupy among the sciences and humanities?
8. What basic words are there in the definition of psychology? What do they mean?
9. Why is there a great number of different specialists in the field of psychology?
10. Which group of psychology experts is the largest?
Handwriting Secrets Revealed
The principles of graphology are very simple. Everything on a page of handwriting – or missing from it – says something about the writer. It is like a jigsaw where all the pieces fit together but have a hidden message as well as a revealed image.
Many of the deductions made in handwriting analysis are really commonsense. Think about how people behave at a party: some people love the noise and beat of the music and spend most of their time dancing, enjoying the attention their actions attract. Others prefer to find somewhere quite and talk with friends. We make judgments of character from this behaviour.
We could make similar judgments by looking at people’s handwriting.
The showy, affectionate, active person will have large, flamboyant writing which demands the reader’s attention, together with other sings of an extrovert character.
The quieter, more reflective soul will have smaller, probably neater and more controlled writing, with pointers to a slightly exhibitionist personality.
Two of the most common things people say about handwriting are: “ I have two styles of writing”; and “ I can’t read anything my doctor writes!”
Taking the first statement, it is true that some people have styles of writing that appear, on the first sight, to be different.
However, closer examination usually reveals that the key character indicators are the same in both examples: the changes are merely cosmetic. Being more relaxed and not feeling that what you are writing is of great significance does affect the look of the writing – rather as if you have changed from a business outfit to jeans and a T-shirt.
On the question of doctors’ writing, it seems to be true that many members of the medical profession have a particularly illegible script. There are two reasons for this. The first is doctors are usually under a lot of pressure and are carrying out the task as quickly as possible. They write in a hurry, and although this does not invariably lead to neglected letter forms, it can have an effect.
The second, and more revealing point, is that illegible writing is subconsciously deliberate: the writer does not want everyone to be able to read it.
Why? Well, doctors like lawyers and some other professionals are in secret business. Part of their job involves knowing things but not letting on. This requirement has crept into their writing style.
The first thing to do with any peace of writing you wish to analyze is to take a long careful look at the page and the general impression the writing creates.
Is it neat and tidy, or messy? Is it easy to read? Does it flow smoothly and fluently across the page? Is it full of eccentricities and odd shapes? You can be sure that the writer deliberately produced it in this form, even if the reason are subconscious.
Many people protest: “ I do all I can to make my writing neat, but it always turns out a mess.” They can not contradict their true nature: they may wish they were perfectionists, super-organized and superb communicators, but if they are not, their handwriting will show their real self.
Messy writing does not necessarily indicate a messy person: they may be highly adaptable and versatile, or hyperactive, for example.
The bigger the writing, the more emotional ( which can mean sentimental or impulsive – or other traits which stem from emotions) is its author. Equally, the smaller the size of the overall text, the more perfectionist and inhibited is its writer, and the more they keep a tight hold on their emotions.
Small writing indicates a slightly withdrawn, often quite intelligent person.
If it is very legible, the writer is pedantic, intelligent, perhaps academic, with excellent powers of concentration, has low self-esteem.
If it is difficult to read, the writer is more independent, perhaps lacking in social skills – a “ difficult” person. In either case, the writer prefers life backstage to out in the glare of the lights.
Medium writing indicates someone who is fairly conventional, and has a healthy balance between heart and head.
Large writing suggests ambition, generosity, a tendency towards exaggeration and a need for self-expression.
Very large writing means watch out! This person is bordering on the obsessional, and will stop at nothing to get his own way, although he will probably switch on something new before the challenge is over. They will encounter many adventures as they barge through life.
Some new words and word-combinations for the text “Handwriting Secrets Revealed”:
Jigsaw составная картинка загадка,
пазл
common sense здравый смысл
showy яркий, эффектный, пестрый
производящий впечатление;
безвкусный; выдающийся
affectionate любящий, нежный, трепетный;
притворный, жеманный
flamboyant волнистый, изогнутый,
напоминающий языки пламени,
яркий; напыщенный
extrovert коммуникабельный,
общительный, открытый,
дружелюбный;
quieter тихий, спокойный, мягкий,
молчаливый, покладистый
reflective задумчивый, погруженный в
свои мысли
exhibitionist эксгибиционист, выставляющий
себя на показ
indicator указатель, признак ч-либо
merely только, просто, единственно
cosmetic косметический
outfit одежда, наряд
illegible неразборчивый, трудный для
чтения
script почерк, рукописный шрифт
invariably неизменно, постоянно, устойчиво
neglect небрежность
deliberate неторопливый, осторожный
let on делать вид, притворяться;
выдавать секрет
tidy аккуратный, чистый
messy грязный, беспорядочный
eccentricity странность, своеобразие,
экстравагантность
odd разрозненный, необычный,
странный
mess путаница, беспорядок, грязь
to contradict противоречить
perfectionist взыскательный, добивающийся во
всем совершенства, педант
superb великолепный, роскошный;
благородный, величественный
communicator передающий ( механизм)
self собственная личность, сам, лично;
сплошной, однородный
adaptable легко приспосабливающийся
versatile гибкий, многогранный,
многосторонний
hyperactive сверх активный
trait характерная черта, особенность
to stem происходить, проистекать (из)…
equally в равной степени, объективно
overall от начала до конца; полный,
общий
to inhibit подавлять; вызывать возникновение
комплексов, закомплексовывать
tight сжатый, плотный, компактный
to withdraw извлекать, вытаскивать; уходить,
удаляться
legible разборчивый, четкий, отчетливый
pedantic педантичный
backstage закулисный; тайный
glare сияние, блеск; острый,
проницательный взгляд;
пернос. значение: - безвкусица,
дешевый шик, китч
medium зд. о почерке – среднего размера
fairly четко, ясно, отчетливо; довольно,
в некоторой степени
conventional обычный, обыкновенный;
традиционный
generosity великодушие, благородство;
щедрость
exaggeration преувеличение
Watch out! Осторожно! Остерегаться,
проявлять осторожность
bordering окаймление; ограничение;
окаймляющий
obsessional навязчивый ( о мысли, идее и т. п.)
to switch on становиться интересным, возбужденным,
сделать интересным; переключаться
challenge вызов, проблема; нечто обращающее
на себя внимание
encounter встреча; первое знакомство;
столкновение, стычка, схватка, бой
adventure риск, авантюра; приключение
barge тяжело передвигаться
to signify значить, обозначать, предвещать,
прогнозировать; иметь значение;
играть роль; извещать, объявлять,
выражать, показывать
II. Answer the following questions:
12. What kind of science is graphology?
13. Does the graphology help make judgments of people by their handwriting?
14. How does an extrovert write?
15. Can people have two styles of writing?
16. Members of medical profession have an illegible script, don’t they?
17. What are the reasons for that?
18. Messy writing indicates a messy person, doesn’t it?
19. What does big writing signify?
20. What can you say about a person with small writing?
21. What does medium writing indicate?
22. What does large writing suggest?
Emotions
An emotion is generally a response of a person to a situation in which he finds himself. A situation which is out of the ordinary one for an individual is likely to result in emotional activity. This emotional activity is generally random and disorganized. It is accompanied by feelings of pleasantness or unpleasantness and universally associated with marked changes in the chemistry of the body.
We know an emotion is not an independent element which comes or goes at will. It is initiated by certain perceptions and accompanies the activities which are stimulated by the situation. We all know how much easier it is to work long hours on something we enjoy and how surprised we are to discover that we are suddenly fatigued after such activity. On the other hand, it is exceedingly difficult to work at something we dislike and find ourselves restless settling down to work at something with conscious effort and intent.
Most of our emotions are learned. We are born with a capacity for emotions and physiological structure capable of handling emotionally charged situations, but emotional behaviour as a reaction to particular objects or events is learned. A young child in such a situation as that of frustration may respond by an emotional storm. As he gets older he learns to inhibit the purely emotional response and to exhibit voluntarily controlled behaviour. As he learns to do this, emotional behaviour becomes less common and less intense. Uninhibited emotional responses amongst human adults are normally rare, and when an individual does exhibit outbreaks of rage, panic etc., these are recognized as pathological. They are one of the symptoms of regression or a going back to infantile modes of behaviour.
Throughout the life people may experience different kinds of emotions. The most characteristic for human beings are the so called altruistic emotions. They may be of two types, i. e. sympathetic and disinterested emotions. We may experience the emotion of fear when we hear a scream of a frightened person or anger, when we hear a friend’s voice raised angrily towards some person. The emotion called out in this way is called a sympathetic emotion. Similarly, we may feel anger at an insulting speech about another person which he has not himself heard. The emotion called out in this way on behalf of another person is called a disinterested emotion. The altruistic emotions are of obvious importance in social behaviour.
Some new words and word-combinations for the text “Emotions”:
altruistic альтруистический, бескорыстный,
неэгоистичный
random сделанный или выбранный наугад;
случайный, беспорядочный
fatigue усталость; изматывать, изнурять,
утомлять
restless беспокойный, неспокойный,
тревожный;постоянный
to settle down регулировать; приводить в порядок;
успокаиваться; смягчаться; приводить в
норму
frustration срыв, крушение; чувство разочарования,
неудовлетворенности
voluntarily добровольный; преднамеренный,
сознательный, умышленный
uninhibited несдерживаемый, свободный
rage ярость, гнев; неистовство; сила;
стремительность; ярость, сильное
стремление, жажда
regression возвращение; возвращение в предыдущее
состояние ( на более раннюю стадию
развития)
infantile инфантильный, младенческий, детский;
начальный; в первой стадии
mode метод, способ; образ действия,
манера поведения; вид, форма, стиль,
обычай; состояние, режим
insult поражение; кровоизлияние в
мозг, инсульт; оскорбление; обида;
оскорблять, обижать
II. Answer the following questions:
10. In what way may an emotion be defined?
11. What is an emotional activity accompanied by?
12. What is an emotion initiated by?
13. Are our emotions learned or inborn?
14. What is child’s reaction to a situation characterized by?
15. Is it easy or difficult for a grown-up person to inhibit an emotional response?
16. What altruistic emotions do you know?
17. What is a sympathetic emotion called?
18. What is a disinterested emotion called?
Classification of Emotions
The list of feelings and reactions we include under the term emotion is almost infinite. A few that come to mind readily are: fear, anger, rage, horror, agony, anxiety, jealousy, shame, embarrassment, disgust, grief, boredom and dejection. These tend to be negative emotions, but positive ones can be added: love, joy, amusement, elation, ecstasy, pleasure, and happiness. It is quite clear that the list could be extended indefinitely, depending on one’s introspective skill and vocabulary range.
At birth there are just a few basic emotional reactions that develop and combine in different ways, through learning and maturation, to cover the full spectrum of emotional experience as we know it at adults. The behaviourist, John Watson postulated three basic emotions in children – fear, rage, and love.
Robert Plutchick has proposed a theory of emotional mixture. He assumes that there are eight basic emotional reactions – anticipation, anger, joy, acceptance, surprise, fear, sorrow, and disgust. According to him, each primary emotional reaction can vary in intensity producing different shades of emotional experience. For instance, such basic reaction like fear can vary in intensity from timidity, through apprehension, fear and panic, up to terror. So we may have annoyance, anger, and rage as well as calmness, serenity, pleasure, happiness, joy and ecstasy.
Other psychologists took a more descriptive approach to the classification of emotions. This approach involves the isolation of one or more basic dimensions along which emotional reactions can be placed. Three main dimensions were described by various authors: intensity, pleasantness-unpleasantness, and approach-avoidance. The intensity dimension is the one most psychologists agree upon. It was also called a level of arousal or activation. And Elizabeth Duffy suggested that the term emotion be replaced by arousal or energy mobilization.
Emotions at the same level of intensity may be pleasant or unpleasant. Among the more aroused emotions appear joy, astonishment, hopefulness, and ecstasy on the pleasant side and disgust, fear, rage and terror on the unpleasant one. Among the less aroused emotions there are the pleasantness of material felling and the unpleasantness of grief.
Some new words and word-combinations for the text “Classification of Emotions”:
infinite большое количество, масса, множество;
огромный, очень большой; бесконечность,
бесконечное пространство
terror страх, ужас; лицо или вещь, внушающее
страх; тяжелый человек; сорвиголова
agony агония; мука, мучение, страдание; взрыв,
внезапное проявление чувств
anxiety беспокойство, тревога; боязнь, опасение,
страх; страстное желание ч-либо
jealousy ревность, ревнивость; зависть;
подозрительность; острая бдительность
embarrassment помеха, преграда, препятствие;
смущение, замешательство
disgust отвращение, омерзение; внушать
отвращение, быть противным
grief горе, печаль; огорчение; беда, бедствие,
несчастье
boredom скука, тоска
dejection сход, сошествие; упадок сил; подавленное
настроение, уныние
amusement забава, развлечение; изумление, отвлечение,
времяпровождение, приятное занятие
elation приподнятое настроение, восторг, бурная
радость, ликование, энтузиазм, эйфория
ecstasy экстаз, исступленный восторг
introspective интроспективный; проводящий самоанализ,
самонаблюдение
maturation развитие ( о способностях; болезни)
anticipation ожидание; предчувствие; предупреждение
acceptance одобрение, признание;
timidity робость, застенчивость
apprehension опасение, мрачное предчувствие; понимание;
мнение, представление
annoyance досада, раздражение; неприятность;
приставание, надоедание
calmness неподвижность, покой, тишина; спокойствие,
невозмутимость, хладнокровие
serenity безмятежность, спокойствие
dimension размах, величина, степень, мера; сторона,
аспект; важность, серьезность
pleasantness приятность
approach приближение, сближение
avoidance избегание, уклонение
arousal пробуждение; возбуждение
hopefulness оптимизм; надежда, виды на будущее
II. Answer the following questions:
10. Into what types are emotions differentiated?
11. How do basic emotional reactions develop?
12. What basic emotions did John Watson postulate?
13. What theory did Robert Plutchik propose?
14. How can each primary reaction vary?
15. What does the descriptive approach involve?
16. What are three main dimensions of emotions?
17. How are emotions differentiated at the same level of intensity?
18. What theory do you think to be the most influential?
Character and Communication
Communication is the most important skill in life. We spend most of our waking hours communicating. But consider this: You have spent years learning how to read and write, years learning how to speak. But what about listening? What training or education have you got that enables you to listen so that you really, deeply understand another human being from the individual’s own frame of reference?
Comparatively few people have had any training has been in the personality ethic of technique, truncated from the character base and the relationship base absolutely vital to authentic understanding of another person.
If you want to interact effectively with me, to influence me – your spouse, your child, your neighbor, your boss, your coworker, your friend – you first need to understand me. And you can’t do that with technique alone. If I sense you are using some technique, I sense duplicity, manipulation. I wonder why you are doing it, what your motives are. And I don't feel safe enough to open myself up to you.
The real key to your influence with me is your example, your actual conduct. Your example flows naturally out of your character, or the kind of person you truly are – not what others say you are or what you may want me to think you are. It is evident in how I actually experience you.
Your character is constantly radiating, communicating. From it, in the long run, I come to instinctively trust or distrust you and your efforts with me.
If your life runs hot and cold, if you are both caustic and kind, and, above all, if your private performance doesn’t square with your public performance, it’s very hard for me to open up with you. Then, as much as I may want and even need to receive your love and influence, I don’t feel safe enough to expose my opinions and experiences and my tender feelings. Who knows what will happen?
But unless I open up with you, unless you understand me and my unique situation and feelings, you won’t know how to advise and counsel me. What you say is good and fine, but it doesn’t quite pertain to me.
You may say you are care about and appreciate me. I desperately want to believe that. But how can you appreciate me when you don’t even understand me? All I have are your words, and I can’t trust words.
I am too angry and defensive - perhaps too guilty and afraid – to be influenced, even though inside I know I need what you could tell me.
Unless you are influenced by your advice. So if you want to be really effective in the habit of interpersonal communication, you cannot do it with technique alone. You have to build the Emotional Bank Accounts that create a commerce between hearts.
Some words and word-combinations for the text “Character and Communication”:
Skill искусство, мастерство, умение
Frame of reference точка зрения; критерий;
сфера деятельности, компетенция
Ethic нравственный, этический,
моральный, этичный
Technique метод; методика, способ;
технические приемы
Truncate урезывать, сокращать
Authentic аутентичный, истинный,
подлинный, верный,
достоверный; надежный,
Duplicity двуличность, лживость
Manipulation манипуляция, обращение;
махинация, подтасовка
Flow out изобиловать, в большом
количестве; происходить;
вытекать из …
Radiate распространять
Trust доверять; доверие
Caustic злая ирония; язвительность; яд;
резкий, остроумный, язвительный
Square прямой, честный, справедливый
Expose показывать; выставлять;
раскрывать
Tender нежный
Pertain быть свойственным, принадлежать
Care about заботиться
Appreciate ценить, оценивать; понимать;
принимать во внимание
Desperately безнадежно; крайне; ужасно,
отчаяно
Defensive защитный, оборонительный
Uniqueness уникальность
Empathic сочувствующий, сопереживающий
Тексты для внеаудиторного чтения для слушателей заочного обучения по специальности 050407.65 - педагогика и психология девиантного поведения
Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud () was born May 6, 1856 in a small town Freiberg. His father was a wool merchant with a keen mind and a good sense of humor. His mother was a lively woman, her husband’s second wife and 20 years younger. She was 21 years old when she gave birth to her first son, Sigmund. Sigmund had two older half-brothers and six younger siblings. When he was four or five the family moved to Viena, where he lived most of his life.
A brilliant child, always at the head of his class, he went to medical school, where he became involved in research under the direction of a physiology professor Ernst Brucke. Brucke believed in reductionism: “ No other forces than the common physical-chemical ones are active within the organism.”
Freud concentrated on neurophysiology, but only a limited number of positions at the university were available. Brucke helped him to get grant to study, first with great psychiatrist Charcot in Paris, then with Bernheim. Both these gentlemen were investigating the use of hypnosis with hysterics.
After spending a short time as a neurologist and director of a children’s ward in Berlin, he came back to Vienna, married his patient fiancee Martha Bernays, and set up a practice in nueropsychiatry, with the help of Joseph Breuer.
Freud’s books and lectures brought him both fame and ostracism ( остракизм, гонения) from the traditional medical community. He collected around him a number of very bright students who became the core of the psychoanalytic movement. Unfortunately, Freud rejected people who did not totally agree with him. Some separated from him on friendly terms; others did not, and continued researd to found competing schools of thought.
Freud emigrated to England just before World War II when Vienna became an increasing dangerous place for Jews, especially ones as famous as Freud. Not long afterward, he died of the cancer of the mouth and jaw that he had suffered from for the last 20 years of his life.
Dr. Sigmund Freud - is the greatest psychologist in the world
Sigmund Freud was a doctor who lived in Vienna, the capital of Austria, from 1859 until 1938. While he was still at university Freud decided to specialize in neurology, the study and treatment of the brain and the nervous system. In 1885, just before he got married, he obtained a grant to go to Paris to see the famous neurologist Jean Martin Charcot.
Charcot worked with men and women who suffered from hysteria. At first sight they appeared to be blind, or are paralyzed in a part of their body, or cannot stop coughing, or have some other physical symptom. But Carcot used hypnosis to show that the real problem was a mental one - under hypnosis he could get them to walk or see. Freud realized from this demonstration the power that the mind could have over the body, and he came back from Paris determined to make a name for himself in this new field of study.
Gradually more and more patients came to see Freud, and with each patient he tried to learn something new about his work. He also tried to analyze himself. He realized that some of the ideas that affect people are unconscious – we do not know about them even though they are in our own minds. Freud said that this means that people may do things without knowing the real reason why they are doing it.
He also showed that the unconscious is full of memories and ideas from early childhood, but they are “repressed’’ and made unconscious because they are things we don’t want to think about, or they are forbidden. Freud believed in an idea which is still often heard today, that “the child is father to the adult”, and because of his views many adults today think about children in a different way to before.
Freud also showed that sometimes the repressed ideas from childhood could show themselves in dreams or nightmares, and one of his most famous books was called The Interpretation of Dreams. The first dream Freud interpreted was when he was on holiday at a place called “Bellvue”.
Freud says that dreams are about all the things we wish for. But rather than just wishing for something, the dream shows us picture as if the wish has come true. So instead of thinking “I wish I had an ice-cream”, a dream shows you actually eating the ice-cream!
But sometimes you are not allowed to have an ice-cream. Freud said that the wish is often forbidden, so it becomes unconscious and repressed. So part of you wants to make the wish come true and part of you wants to stop you to stop the wish. Because of this the wish is disguised, which means that the dream has to be interpreted before it makes sense. That’s why Freud called his book The Interpretation of Dreams.
One of the most important thing Freud discovered was what he called “The Oedipus complex”. The Oedipus story was a Greek myth about a man who killed his father, the king, and married his mother. In the story Oedipus also had to solve the “riddle of the Sphinx’’, by answering the three questions the Sphinx asked him.
Freud thought that all little boys of 4 or 5 years old were like Oedipus in the story. When they say ‘I wish I could have mummy all to myself and that daddy was gone away” they are wanting to be just like Oedipus. But this wish cannot be granted – no one can have their mummy all to themselves – so the child has to learn to grow up and accept his disappointment. It was when his own father died that Freud began the study of dreams which led him to discover the Oedipus complex.
Gradually Freud developed the theory of Psychoanalysis and the method of helping people he called free association. With free association Freud simply asked his patients to lie on the couch and say anything that came into their heads. He tried to interpret what they said by relating it to the repressed ideas and wishes in the unconscious. In this way he hopped that things which were unconscious would gradually become conscious, so that the patient would have more control over them and they would not be able to affect him or her so much.
Alfred Binet
Alfred Binet ( ), French psychologist known for his achievement in developing a standard intelligence test.
Binet was born on July 11, 1857, in Nice. He was educated at the Sorbonne, where he studied Law. However, he decided to continue his studies in medicine and psychology. In 1889, at the Sorbonne, he helped to found the first psychological research laboratory in France. As director of the laboratory, Binnet tried to develop experime4ntal techniques to measure intelligence and reasoning ability. In 1895, he founded the first French psychological journal ‘ The Psychological Year”, and used it to publish the results of his research studies.
Binet’s most important work was in intelligence testing. With his colleage, psychologist Theodore Simon, he developed a test to measure the mental ability of children. The Binet-Simon Scale first appeared in 1905. It was made up of problems designed to measure general intelligence, and items were graded according to age level. The child’s score, based on the number of correct answers, showed the child’s mental age.
Binet died in Paris on October 18, 1911. His work on intelligence measurement remained important among psychologists in other countries. The Stanford-Binet Scale, an adaptation of Binet’s original test, was widely used for many years in the United States, where great importance was paid to intelligence testing.
Jean-Martin Charcot ( )
Jean-Martin Charcot was born in Paris on November 29, 1825. He received his Master’s degree at the University of Paris in 1853. In 1860 he became a professor at his alma mater. Two years later, he began to work at hospital as well. In 1882, he opened a neurological clinic and became known throughout Europe. Students came from everywhere to study the new field. Among them were Alfred Binet and a young Sigmund Freud.
Charcot is well known in medical circles for his studies of the neurology of motor disorders, resulting diseases and localization of brain functions. He is considered the father of modern neurology.
In psychology, he is the best known for his use of hypnosis to successfully treating women suffering from the psychological disorder then known as hysteria.
Charcot believed that hysteria was due to a congenitally (врожденно) weak nervous system, combined with the effects of some traumatic experience. Hypnotizing these patients brought on a state similar to hysteria itself. He found that, in some cases, the symptoms would actually lessen after hypnosis, although he was only interested in studying hysteria, not in curing it. Others would later use hypnosis as a part of curing the problem.
Charcot died in France, on August 16, 1893.
Carl Gustav Jung
Carl Gustav Jung ( ) was born on July 26, 1875, in Kesswill, Switzerland, in the family of a Protestant clergyman ( священника). After graduating in medicine in 1902 from the universities of Basel and Zurich, with a wide background in biology, zoology, palaeontology, and archaeology, he began his work on world association, in which a patient’s responses to stimulus words revealed what Jung called “complexes” – a term that has since become universal These studies brought him international fame and led him to a close collaboration with Freud.
With the publication of Psychology of the Unconscious ( 1912), however, Jung declared his independence from Freud’s narrowly sexual interpretation of the libido by showing the close parallels between ancienmyth and psychotic fantasies and by explaining human motivation in terms of a larger creative energy. He gave up the presidency of the International Psychoanalytic Society and founded a movement called analytical psychology.
During his remaining 50 years Jung developed his theories, drawing on a wide knowledge of mythology and history; on his travels to diverse cultures in New Mexico, India, and Kenya; and especially, on the dreams and fantasies of his childhood. In 1921 he published a major work, Psychological Types, in which he dealt with the relationship between the conscious and unconscious and proposed the now well-known personality types – extrovert and introvert.
He late made a distinction between the personal unconscious, or the repressed feelings and thoughts developed during an individual’s life, and the collective unconscious, or those inherited feeling, thoughts, and memories shared by all humanity. The collective unconscious, according to Jung, is made up of what he called “archetypes.” These correspond to such experiences as confronting death or choosing a mate and manifest themselves symbolically in religions, myths, fairy tales, and fantasies.
Jung wrote many works on analytical methods and the relationships between psychotherapy and religious belief. He died on June 6, 1961.
The Historical Background of Psychology
Psychology has both a traditional and scientific history, as any other science. Traditionally, psychology dates back to the earliest speculations about the relationships of man with environment. Beginning from 600 B. C. the Greek intellectuals observed and discussed these relationships. Empedocles said that the cosmos consisted of four elements: earth, air, fire and water. Hippocrates translated these elements into four bodily humors and characterized the temperament of individuals on the basis of these humors.
Plato recognized two classes of phenomena: things and ideas. Ideas, he said, come from two sources: some innate and come with a soul, others are product of observations through the sense organs. The giant of the thinkers was Aristotle. He was interested in anatomy and physiology of the body, he explained learning on the basis of association of ideas, he said knowledge should be achieved on the basis of observations.
After the birth of Christ, St. Augustine characterized the method of introspection and developed a field of knowledge, later called as faculty psychology. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, scientific truth must be based on observation and experimentation.
During the 15-th and 16-th centuries the scientific knowledge developed greatly. Among the most important scientific investigations were those of Newton in psychology of vision and Harvey in physiology.
The mind-body problem was a very important for the 17-th and 18-th centuries philosophers and entered recent psychology. Here appeared such theories as: 1) occasionalism, according to which God is between a mind and a body; 2) double aspect theory, in which a mind and a body are different aspects of the same substance; 3) psychophysical parallelism, according to which a mind and a body are parallel in their actions.
The associanists, or empiricists, developed the doctrine of associations: simple ideas form complex sensations and ideas ( Thomas Hobbes and John Locke were the founders of this theory). Opposed to the association theory was the doctrine of mental faculties.
Nowadays psychology is a separate discipline, a real combination of true knowledge of human nature.
Deviance
What is Deviance?
The concept of deviance is defined as violation of cultural norms of a group or all of society. Since cultural norms affect such wide range of human activities, the concept of deviance is correspondingly broad. The most obvious and familiar type of deviance is crime – the violation of cultural norms that have been formally enacted into criminal law. Criminal deviance is itself quite variable in content, from minor offences such as traffic violations to serious crimes such as homicide and rape. Closely related to crime is juvenile delinquency – the violation of legal standards by children or adolescents.
Deviance is not limited to crime, however. It includes many other types of nonconformity, from the mild to the extreme, such as left-handedness, boastfulness, and Mohawk hairstyles ( хулиганская прическа), as well as pacifism, homosexuality and mental illness. Industrial societies contain a wide range of subcultures that display distinctive attitudes, appearance, and behavior. Consequently, those who conform to society’s dominant cultural standards, artists, homeless people, and members of various ethnic minorities may seem deviant. In addition, poor – whose lack of financial resources makes conforming to many conventional middleclass patterns of life difficulty – are also subject to definition of deviance. Physical traits, too, may be the basis of deviance, as members of racial minorities in America know well. Men with many highly visible tattoos on their body may be seen as deviant, as are women with any tattoo at all. Even being unusually tall or short, or grossly fat or exceedingly thin, may be the basis of deviance. Physical disabilities are yet another reason for being seen by others as deviant.
Deviance, therefore, is based on any dimension of difference that is considered to be significant and provokes a negative reaction that serves to make the deviant person an outsider. In addition to the experience of social isolation, deviance is subject to social control, by which others attempt to bring deviant people back into line. Like deviance itself, social control can take many forms. Socialization is a complex process of social control in which family, peer groups, and the mass media attempt to influence our attitudes and behavior. A more formal type of social control is the criminal justice system – the formal process by which society reacts to alleged violations of the law through the use of police, courts, and punishment. Social control does not have to take the form of a negative response to conformity. Praise from parents, high grades at school, laudatory mention in newspapers and other mass media, and positive recognition from officials in the local community are all forms of social control that serve to encourage conformity to conventional patterns of thought and behavior.
Biological Explanations of Deviance
Human behavior was understood – or more correctly, misunderstood – during the 19-th century as an expression of biological instincts. Along with other patterns of human behavior, criminality was explained on biological grounds.
Lombroso: early research
In 1876, Caesare Lombroso ( ), an Italian physician who worked in prisons, developed a biological theory of criminality. Lombroso described criminals as having distinctive physical characteristics – low foreheads, prominent jaws and cheekbones, protruding ears, hairiness, and unusually long arms – that resemble human beings’ apelike ancestors. In other words, he viewed criminals as evolutionary throwbacks to lower forms of life.
Because of their biologically based inadequacy, Lombroso reasoned, such individuals would think and act in a primitive manner likely to run afoul of society’s laws. Although toward the end of his career Lombroso acknowledged that social factors play a part in criminality, his early claim that some people are literally born criminals was widely influential in an era in which biological explanations of human behavior were popular.
Lombroso’s findings were based on seriously flawed research methods. He failed to see that the physical characteristics he found in prison and linked to criminality also existed in the population as a whole. Early in the 20-th century, the British psychiatrist Charles Buckman Goring (), who also worked in prisons, published the results of a comparison of thousands of convicts and noncriminals. There was a great deal of physical variation within both groups, but Goring’s research showed there were no significant physical differences between the criminal and noncriminal categories of the kind suggested by Lombroso.
Delinquency and body structure.
After Lombroso’s theory of born criminality was disproved, others continued to search for biological explanations of criminality. William Sheldon (1949) advanced the idea of body structure in terms of three general types: ectomorphs, who were tall, thin, and fragile ; endomorphs, who were short, and fat; and mesomorphs, who were muscular and athletic. Sheldon noted that no one conforms exactly to any of these pure types. Rather, he thought the average person shows some combination of body types, although one type usually predominates. After comparing hundreds of young men – half of whom were known to have been engaged in criminal activity and half of whom, were believed to be noncriminal – Sheldon reported an apparent association between criminality and the mesomorphic body type. In other words, he found a link between criminality and a muscular, athletic body structure. Like Lombroso, however, Sheldon was criticized for basing his work on samples that were not representative of the entire population.
Further, more carefully designed research based on these basic body types was conducted by Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck (1950). The Gluecks also concluded that there is a link between criminality and mesomorphic body structure, although they did not claim that physical characteristics are a direct cause of criminality. Rather, they concluded that the mesomorphic body type is associated with personal characteristics – such as insensitivity to frustration – that seem likely to promote criminality. The Gluecks also noted the importance of social environment in explaining criminality; they found that young men with mesomorphic builds were typically raised with little affection and understanding from family members.
Although these findings indicate that there may be an association between body type and criminality, they do not establish any casual connection between the two. Indeed, the association may vary well have a social explanation. Young men with muscular builds have the ability to be the “ bullies on the block” which some of them may become.
Deviance is a product of Society?
We tend to believe that deviance is a result of an individual’s free choice on personal failings. But, as our discussion of culture, social structure, and socialization showed, all social behavior – deviance as well as conformity – is rooted in society. This is evident in three ways.
1. Deviance exists only in relation to cultural norms.
No thought or action is inherently deviant. Rather, it becomes so only in relation to the norms of a particular culture or subculture. Norms vary considerably from one culture to another, so that conceptions of deviance vary as well. In the traditional village communities of Sicily, for example, cultural norms support the use of physical violence to avenge an insult to the honor in one’s family. In this case, not to avenge an insult would be defined as deviant. Within the American society, however, cultural norms do not support the use of violence in this way. Therefore, what is honorable in Sicily is likely to result in arrest and prosecution in the United States.
As cultural norms change over time, so do conceptions of deviance. In the 1920s, American cultural norms linked women’s lives to the home, so that a woman who wanted to become a corporate executive, for instance, would certainly have been considered deviant. Today, however, there is far greater support for allowing woman the opportunity to pursue a career outside of the home. Consequently, career woman are no longer defined as deviant.
2. People become deviant as others define them that way.
We all violate cultural norms, and even commit crimes, from time to time. For example, most of us have at some point walked around talking to ourselves, taken something that belonged to someone else, or driven another person’s automobile without permission. Simply doing any of these things, however, is not sufficient to be defined as mentally ill or criminal. Whether or not a person is defined as deviant depends on the perception and definition of the situation by others – a process that is quite variable. To a large extent, of course, being defined as deviant depends not only on norm violation, but also on being caught by others. Even then, however, the activity in question may be perceived in different ways. For example, a male celebrity can dress like a woman on stage to the praise of adoring fans, while provoke a quite negative response. Whether or not a person is defined as deviant, therefore, depends on the variable process of social definition.
3. Both cultural norms and defining someone as deviant are related to patterns of social power.
Cultural norms – especially laws – are likely to protect the interests of the most powerful people in a society. For example, closing a factory permanently is within the legal rights of a factory owner, even though doing so may put thousands of people out of work. At the same time, a less powerful person who commits vandalism that closes a factory for a single day is likely to be defined as criminal. Powerless people may be defined as deviant for exactly the same behavior that powerful people engage in with impunity. For example, a homeless person who stands on a street corner and denounces the city government may be arrested for disturbing place. On the other hand, a candidate trying to unseat the mayor during an election campaign can do the same thing while receiving extensive police protection.
In sum, while commonly understood as a quality of individuals, deviance is inseparable from the operation of society
The Structure of Social Interaction
Because society is an organized system, it is not surprising that social interaction is patterned. Society is, after all, built on countless interactions among individual human beings, and human beings have the capacity to act with almost infinite variety. In the absence of social patterns, people would indeed find social life confusing. Culture provides guidelines for human behavior in the form of values and norms.
To illustrate, consider the familiar setting of an American college classroom. Entering the classroom, students could do almost anything – begin to sing or throw a football around the room but guided by social norms that apply to that setting, they routinely take their seats, perhaps talking quietly among themselves, and await the arrival of the professor. Even though professors are defined as being in charge of the class, they too are bound by cultural norms, so they begin to teach from a position at the front of the room while facing the class.
Certainly, the behavior of each student and teacher is partly unique; yet social behavior in one American classroom is remarkably like that in any other. In spite of personal differences, individuals who enter the classroom behave like “ professors” or “ students”. This fact is clearly evident to people who return after many years, to a school they once attended. The school is now filled with unfamiliar faces, but the social patterns remain much the same. In other words, even though different people come and go from this setting, the social structure of classroom behavior persists over time. In the same way, although every family is composed of different individuals, the behavior of “ mothers”, “ fathers”, “ brothers” and “ sisters” is also largely patterned according to cultural norms.
Social Structure and Individuality
The assertion that human behavior is socially patterned often provokes some initial resistance. Few human beings readily admit to being part of any kind of system, especially those who live in a culture that prizes individual autonomy. Americans, for instance tend to emphasize individual responsibility for behavior and highlight the unique elements of their responsibilities. Behaving in patterned ways, however, does not threaten our individuality. On the contrary, individuality is encouraged by social structure.
First, and more generally, our humanity involves much more than physical existence. The great potential of human beings develops only through interaction with others. Within social life, distinct personalities emerge as people blend their unique qualities with values and norms of the large culture from freely expressing ourselves. The social world can be disorienting, even frightening, to people who do not know the behavior guidelines. Without this knowledge, people feel too uncomfortable to express their unique personalities with confidence.
To illustrate, you may recall going alone to a party given by people you did not know well. Entering such a setting – and not knowing quite what to expect – is likely to cause some anxiety. At such times you generally feel self-conscious, try to make a favorable impression and to look to others for clues about what sort of behavior is expected of you. Once you understand the behavioral standards that apply to the setting, you are likely to feel comfortable enough to “act like yourself”.
Of course, social structure also places some constraints on human guiding behavior within culturally approved bounds, established social patterns discourage behavior that is culturally defined as unconventional. Traditional values and norms in the United States and Canada, for example, still reflect the expectation that males will be “masculine” ( physically strong, self-assertive, and rational) and the females will be “feminine” ( physically weak, self-effacing, and emotional). The structure of society exerts pressure on individuals to fit into one or the other of these categories, ignoring the fact that most people have both “ masculine” and “ feminine” qualities. In this and many other ways, social structure can limit any individual’s freedom to think and act in ways that may be personally preferred. In addition, the failure to conform to established social patterns may lead to being defined by others as deviant.
Globalization as a new way of socialization (principle of tolerance)
A variety of vectors of public development in the modern world is connected to processes of global importance.
The uniqueness of a modern situation is in the fact that, before "everyone and all" rises a task of a survival. It is necessary to survive in a planetary condition, where there are following crisis processes:
· Bifurcation of biological evolution and technocratical gains of mankind;
· The contradiction of financial and economic globalization with social and material maintenance of each individual;
· Inability of the liberal - democratic forms of the public device, effective within the framework of the separate national state to become the basis of integrity of world community;
· National-ethnic divergation and conflictness.
In connection with these global problems it is lawful to consider globalization as a new way of socialization.
The recognition of sovereigness and value of another is a necessary condition not only of integration, but also of elementary survival in the modern world.
Now any national sovereignty carries conditional enough character by virtue of a generality of global problems and in spite of the fact that it is the central part of modern international law. The main subject of this sovereignty in the international system is a state.
But also in such condition the tendencies of ethnopolitical and transethnical, economic-political and welfare sovereignazation grow ripe.
Before world community, first of all, on behalf of its legitim organizations, for example UN, there is a task of civil-law codification of integral activity of all participants of public development.
In a modern world in mutual relations of the states the threat of war and conflicts doesn't eradicate, but many productive efforts on their settlement are undertaken
Now formal and informal legal and moral rules, institutes and the principles carry out the peace decision of disputed situations, influencing on association of national efforts. Their reality is possible to define by the term tolerance, thus having emphasized the concurrence of idea, principle and embodiment.
The civil-law experience of regulation of the ethnic and national conflicts at the international level staticizes tolerance, on the one hand, as objective result of interaction of the multipolar human world, its precondition, and with another - as the factor of its progress to integrity and cooperation. In modern experience of the international control above the process of sovereignazation and peace resolution of conflicts there is a development of tolerance now as political necessity, and as cultural norm.
Globalization of economic life is a product of the European civilization and its theoretical and ideological registration for the first time was received in the West, but now it is a world process which has captured ability to live of the people in many countries. Just during globalization the conditions for dialogue of cultures and creation of universal norms of life grow ripe.
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