17. Translate from English into Russian in writing using a dictionary. Your time is 45 minutes
Child psychology
Child psychology, also called Child Development, is the study of the psychological processes of children, specifically, how these processes differ from those of adults, howthey develop from birth to the end of adolescence, and how and why they differfrom one child to the next. The topic is sometimes subsumed with infancy, adulthood, and aging under the category of developmental psychology.
As a scientific discipline with a firm empirical basis, child study is of comparatively recent origin. It was initiated in 1840, when Charles Darwin began a record of the growth and development of one of his own children, collecting the data much as if he were studying some strange species. A similar, more elaborate study was published by the German psychophysiologist W. T. Preyer (Die Seele des Kindes [1882; The Mind of the Child]) that set the fashion for a series of others. In 1891 the American educational psychologist G. Stanley Hall established a periodical, the Pedagogical Seminary, devoted to child psychology and pedagogy. During the early 20th century, the development of intelligence tests and the establishment of child guidance clinics further defined the field of child psychology.
A number of notable 20th-century psychologists—among them Sigmund Freud, Melanie Klein, and Freud's daughter, Anna Freud—dealt with child development chiefly from the psychoanalytic point of view. Perhaps the greatest direct influence on modern child psychology was Jean Piaget of means of direct observation and interaction, Piaget developed a theory based on the systematic study of the acquisition of understanding in children. He described the various stages of learning in childhood and characterized the child's perception of himself and the world at each stage.
The data of child psychology are gathered from a variety of sources. Observations by relatives, teachers, and other adults, as well as the psychologist's direct observation of and interviews with a child (or children), provide a significant amount of material. In some cases a one-way window or mirror isused so that children are free to interact with their environment or others without awareness that they are being watched. Projective tests, personality and intelligence tests, and experimental methods have also proved useful in understanding child development.
Despite attempts to unify the various theories of child development, the field remains dynamic, developing as human understanding of physiology and psychology changes.
18. Translate from English into Russian in writing using a dictionary. Your time is 45 minutes
Clinical psychology
Clinical psychology is a a branch of psychology concerned with the practical application of research findings and methodologies in the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders.
Clinical psychologists classify their basic activities under three main headings: assessment (including diagnosis), treatment, and research. In assessment, clinical psychologists give and interpret psychological tests, either for the purpose of evaluating individuals' relative intelligence or other capabilities or for the purpose of eliciting mental characteristicsthat will aid in diagnosing a particular mental disorder. The interview, in which the psychologist observes, questions, and interacts with a patient, is another standard tool of diagnosis.
For purposes of treatment, the clinical psychologist may use any of several types of psychotherapy (q. v.), and recently the tendency has been toward an eclectic approach, using a combination of techniques suited to the client. Clinical psychologists may specialize in behaviour therapy, group therapy, family therapy, or psychoanalysis, among others.
Research is an important field for some clinical psychologists because of their training in the use of experimental studies and statistical procedures. Clinical psychologists are thus often crucial participants in research projects bearing on mental-health care.
Clinical psychologists perform their services in hospitals, clinics, or in private practice, while others work with the mentally or physically handicapped, prison inmates, drug and alcohol abusers, or geriatric patients. In some clinical settings, aclinical psychologist works in tandem with a psychiatrist and a social worker and is responsible for conducting the team's research. Clinical psychologists are also employed in industry, where some specialize in services to emotionally disturbed employees and others in services for managerial officials. Otherclinical psychologists serve the courts in assessing defendants or potential parolees, and some are employed by the armed forces to evaluate or treat service personnel.
The training of clinical psychologists usually includes the university-level study of general psychology and some clinical experience and amounts to 5–7 years of higher education in all. Because they have not earned a medical degree, clinical psychologists cannot prescribe medications for patients.
19. Translate from English into Russian in writing using a dictionary. Your time is 45 minutes
Applied psychology
Applied psychology is the use of the findings and methods of scientific psychology in solving practical problems of human and animal behaviour and experience. A more precisedefinition is impossible because the activities of applied psychology range from laboratory experimentation through field studies of specific utility to direct services to troubled persons.
The same intellectual streams whose confluence produced psychology as an independent discipline in the latter part of the 19th century led to the later development of an applied psychology. Francis Galton's publication in 1883 of Inquiries Into Human Faculty foreshadowed the measurement of individual psychological differences. In 1896 Lightner Witmer established at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, a clinic that was a forerunner of clinical psychology. Intelligence testing began with the work of Alfred Binet and Thйodore Simon in the Paris schools. Group testing, legal problems, industrial efficiency, motivation, and delinquency were among other early areas of application. At the Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh, a division of applied psychology was established as a teaching and research department in 1915. The Journal of Applied Psychology appeared in 1917 along with the first applied-psychology text, by H. L. Hollingsworth and A. T. Poffenberger. World Wars I and II fostered work on vocational testing, teaching methods, evaluation of attitudes and morale, performance under stress, propaganda and psychological warfare, rehabilitation, and counseling.
After World War II many of the trends in applied psychology were accentuated by the demands of the space age. Educational psychologists applied themselves to the task of early identification and discovery of talented persons, since it was recognized that trained intelligence is an important national ch activities were linked with the work of counseling psychologists, who sought to help persons clarify and attain their educational, vocational, and personal goals. Concern for the optimum utilization of human resources also increased the importance of industrial and personnel psychology in business and industrial organizations. The aviation industry and the various space agencies and organizations were important in the rapid development of the field of engineering psychology; as machines and engineeringsystems grew in complexity, it was necessary to study man–machine relationships. In response to society's concern fortreatment of the mentally ill and for preventive measures against mental illness, clinical psychology showed the greatest absolute growth rate within psychology. Psychologists studied the application of automation, and in the developing countries they helped with the problems of rapid industrialization and manpower planning.
20. Translate from English into Russian in writing using a dictionary. Your time is 45 minutes
Gestalt psychology
Gestalt psychology is the 20th-century school of psychology that provided the foundation for the modern study of perception. Its precepts, formulated as a reaction against the atomistic orientation of previous theories, emphasized that the whole of anything is greater than its parts. The attributes of the whole of anything are notdeducible from analysis of the parts in isolation. The word Gestalt is used in modern German to mean the way a thing has been gestellt; i. e., “placed,” or “put together.”
Gestalt theory began toward the close of the 19th century in Austria and south Germany as a protest against the associationist and structural schools' piecemeal analyses of experience into atomistic elements. Gestalt studies made use instead of the methods of phenomenology. This method, with a tradition going back to Goethe, involves nothing more than the description of direct psychological experience, with no restrictions on what is permissible in the description. Gestalt psychology was in part an attempt to add a humanistic dimension to what was considered a barren approach to the scientific study of mental life. Gestalt psychology sought to encompass the qualities of form, meaning, and value that prevailing psychologists had either ignored or thought to fall outside the confines of science.
Max Wertheimer (q. v.) in 1912 published the paper considered to mark the founding of the Gestalt school. In it he reported the result of an experimental study done at Frankfurt with two colleagues, Wolfgang Kцhler and Kurt Koffka (qq. v.); these threeformed the core of the Gestalt school for the next decades. The earliest Gestalt work concerned the area of perception, particularly visual perceptual organization as illuminated by thephenomenon of illusion. A perceptual illusion that provided strong support for Gestalt principles was the phi-phenomenon, an illusion of apparent motion named and described in 1912 by Wertheimer. The phi-phenomenon is a visual illusion in which stationary objects shown in rapid succession appear to move bytranscending the threshold at which they can be perceived separately.
The effect of the phi-phenomenon was apparently inexplicable on the old assumption that the sensations of perceptual experience stand in a one-to-one relation to the physical stimuli. The perceived motion is an emergent experience, not present in the stimuli in isolation but dependent upon the relational characteristics of the stimuli. The nervous system of the observer and the observer's experience do not passively register the physical input in a piecemeal way.
II. ВОПРОС № 2
1. Read without a dictionary (Your time is 3-5 min.) and retell it in English Development of the child The study of child development is of great interest to adults. Since the mentality, dispositions and behavior of the adult are the result of a long and complex process, they can be better understood in the light of their developmental history. Furthermore, only when we have a proper understanding in detail of the intellectual, emotional and social changes that take place during the course of growth from birth to adolescence will we be in a position to provide him with correct education and vocational guidance. The realization that a child is not merely a small grown-up is a comparatively recent discovery. Even a century ago this idea would have seemed strange. Until that time a child was not only dressed like a miniature adult, he was often treated like one. That childhood is psychologically a unique sphere came to be understood gradually through the treatment of adults suffering from mental and emotional disorders. This treatment required a retrospective examination of the patient’s childhood memories. At first, the primary interest was taken not in childhood itself, but in studying the early experiences, which might throw the light on situations in later years. At the next stage, attention was turned to the actual problems of the child, but still only with the aim of preventing mental disturbance in adult life.
2. Read without a dictionary (Your time is 3-5 min.) and retell it in English More extreme variations in mood determined by physiological causes were observed in serious diseases. Thus, it was shown that some progressing internal diseases might be accompanied by the symptoms of acute displeasure. Fear, which is a normal accompaniment to attacks of angina pectoris, is also an emotion, which seems to be directly caused by a physiological state. Persistent or transitory affective states or emotional conditions, which are unrelated to the external situation, may also occur when the cause appears to be psychological. For example, some neurotic individuals are oppressed by the sense of guilt or by a persistent state of fear or anxiety. It was suggested by W. Wundt that differences in the quality of affective states were not only explained by the degree of pleasure or displeasure. He suggests that there were three directions of variation: pleasure–displeasure, excitation–quiescence, strain–relaxation. Thus, an affect might be pleasurable, excited and tense or pleasurable, excited and relaxed, any other of the eight possible combinations of these pairs of opposites. This theory was called the three-dimensional theory of feeling. It was hoped that measurements of various bodily changes mainly connected with blood supply, such as limb volume, the electrical resistance of the skin, pulse rate, blood pressure, etc., might, make possible an objective determination of the affective condition of the experimental subject. All of these quantities do change with the affective condition of the subject, but it has not proved possible to correlate these changes with changes in the three variables postulated by W. Wundt.
3. Read without a dictionary (Your time is 3-5 min.) and retell it in English
The Id
The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth. This aspect of personality is entirely unconscious and includes of the instinctive and primitive behaviors. According to Freud, the id is the source of all psychic energy, making it the primary component of personality.
The id is driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and needs. If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state anxiety or tension. For example, an increase in hunger or thirst should produce an immediate attempt to eat or drink. The id is very important early in life, because it ensures that an infant's needs are met. If the infant is hungry or uncomfortable, he or she will cry until the demands of the id are met.
However, immediately satisfying these needs is not always realistic or even possible. If we were ruled entirely by the pleasure principle, we might find ourselves grabbing things we want out of other people's hands to satisfy our own cravings. This sort of behavior would be both disruptive and socially unacceptable.
4. Read without a dictionary (Your time is 3-5 min.) and retell it in English Evolution of the nervous system As we pass from the lower to the higher forms of animal life, we notice that organisms become larger and are capable of more complex behavior patterns. Parallel with the change in size and complexity of behavior there is a more elaborate system of interaction between parts of the organism. The mechanism of interaction is the nervous system, which consists of cells playing various roles in this process of interaction. The capacity gained by the nervous system by means of which various parts of the body can simultaneously or successively be moved in order to achieve some end may be called coordination. Coordination attained by the conduction of nerve impulses through the nervous system results in our bodies acting not as sets of separate parts, but as an integrated system, in which each part (hand, eye, foot, etc.) carries out the activities determined by the needs of the body as a whole. The first step in attaining a more efficient type of transmitting impulses is the differentiation of body cells, which convey impulses from one part of the body to another. These cells are elongated processes called neurons, with a nucleus at one end.
5. Read without a dictionary (Your time is 3-5 min.) and retell it in English
The Superego
The last component of personality to develop is the superego. The superego is the aspect of personality that holds all of our internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire from both parents and society--our sense of right and wrong. The superego provides guidelines for making judgments. According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at around age five.
There are two parts of the superego:
The ego ideal includes the rules and standards for good behaviors. These behaviors include those which are approved of by parental and other authority figures. Obeying these rules leads to feelings of pride, value and accomplishment.
The conscience includes information about things that are viewed as bad by parents and society. These behaviors are often forbidden and lead to bad consequences, punishments or feelings of guilt and remorse.
The superego acts to perfect and civilize our behavior. It works to suppress all unacceptable urges of the id and struggles to make the ego act upon idealistic standards rather that upon realistic principles. The superego is present in the conscious, preconscious and unconscious.
6. Read without a dictionary (Your time is 3-5 min.) and retell it in English Control of emotions Emotions are a kind of the automatic instinctive response and are not necessarily the most efficient driving forces of behavior in all situations. Where the effective way of dealing with a situation is a highly coordinated type of behavior, an emotional response may produce intensified behavior at the cost of considerable disintegration of the pattern of behavior. Thus, a boxer may fight with vigor and variety if he is angry, but he will be less well able to make highly coordinated movements of skilful boxing and may box less well. Generally, a situation demanding a simple response, such as escape from a dangerous animal, will be coped with more efficiently under the stress of emotion, while complex and highly coordinated responses tend to be performed less efficiently. Since our situations tend to be largely those in which highly coordinated and skilled responses are required, we tend to value a form of character development in which, among adults, emotions attain only moderate intensities and do not disrupt the generally accepted behavior patterns. A young child in a situation of frustration may respond by an emotional storm, which does little to alter the situation. As he gets older, he learns to inhibit the purely emotional response and to exhibit voluntarily controlled behavior directed towards reorganizing the external situation in a direction more satisfactory to him.
7. Read without a dictionary (Your time is 3-5 min.) and retell it in English
The sympathetic and disinterested emotions An emotion is generally the response of a person to the situation in which he finds himself: fear to his own danger, anger to his own injury, and so on. However, the same emotions may be evoked as responses to two other kinds of situation, both related to other people. We may experience the emotion of fear when we hear the scream of a frightened person, or anger when we hear a friend’s voice raised angrily and see his threatening gestures towards the person who has injured him. Here the situation evoking our emotion is the outward expression of some other person’s similar emotion. The emotion evoked in this way may be called sympathetic emotion. We may, however, also experience emotion as a consequence of the perception of a situation affecting another person. We may feel fear when we see another person on the point of being run down by a bus, which he has not seen, or when we watch a child playing at the edge of a cliff unconscious of the danger. Similarly, we may feel anger at an injurious or insulting speech about another person, which he has not himself heard. The emotion evoked in this way on behalf of another person may be called disinterested emotion.
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