База экзаменационных вопросов для проведения кандидатского экзамена по английскому языку для специальности 19.00.01 «Общая психология, психология личности, история психологии» (стр. 1 )

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Ректор НАЧОУ ВПО СГА

«18» апреля 2013 г.

База экзаменационных вопросов для проведения

кандидатского экзамена по английскому языку для специальности

19.00.01 «Общая психология, психология личности, история психологии»

Рассмотрено и одобрено на заседании Ученого совета НАЧОУ ВПО СГА

протокол от 16 апреля 2013 г.

БАЗА ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫХ ВОПРОСОВ ДЛЯ ПРОВЕДЕНИЯ

КАНДИДАТСКОГО ЭКЗАМЕНА ПО АНГЛИЙСКОМУ ЯЗЫКУ

ДЛЯ СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТИ 19.00.01 «ОБЩАЯ ПСИХОЛОГИЯ, ПСИХОЛОГИЯ ЛИЧНОСТИ, ИСТОРИЯ ПСИХОЛОГИИ»

4022.К. ЭК.01;БЭКЭ.01;1

I. ВОПРОС № 1

1. Translate from English into Russian in writing using a dictionary. Your time is 45 minutes
Intelligence
You cannot pick up a magazine today without seeing an article regarding intelligence. The study of intelligence has proved to be a continuously evolving, dynamic field, with the breadth of the field expanding rapidly over the past 25–30 years. Many individuals, such as Gardner, Naglieri, and Goleman, argue that our view of human intelligence is far too narrow, leading the way to an expanded view of what intelligence is and what constitutes intelligence. Several of the new and emerging intelligences are noted in the following sections.
In the early 1980s, Howard Gardner opened the window to multiple intelligence (MI). Prof. Gardner claimed that MI theory illuminates the fact that humans exist in a multitude of contexts and that these contexts both call for and nourish different arrays and assemblies of intelligence. Many psychologists have expounded on this notion and today the number of quantifiable intelligences extends beyond that of Gardner's initial seven multiple intelligences.
Robert J. Stemberg has devoted much of his career to the study of various conceptions of human intelligence. Starting with his triarchic theory of human intelligence, he has expanded on his view of human ability and ccessful intelligence is defined as the set of mental abilities used to achieve one’s goals in life, given a socio-cultural context, through adaptation to, selection of, and shaping ccessful intelligence involves three aspects that are interrelated but largely distinct: analytical, creative, and practical thinking.
Practical intelligence is the ability to size up a situation well, to be able to determine how to achieve goals, to display awareness to the world around you, and to display interest in the world at large. Prof. Stemberg is working on several projects that examine the interrelation of his various conceptions of ability in applied settings.
Moral intelligence is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Broadly conceived, moral intelligence represents the ability to make sound decisions that benefit not only yourself, but also others around you.
Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand other people: what motivates them, how they work, how to work cooperatively with ccessful salespeople, politicians, teachers, clinicians, and religious leaders are all likely to be individuals with high degrees of interpersonal intelligence. At the same time, social intelligence probably draws on specific internal abilities.

2. Translate from English into Russian in writing using a dictionary. Your time is 45 minutes
Anxiety Disorders and Acute Stress Response Normal and abnormal stress responses are at the center of understanding anxiety and anxiety disorders. Anxiety disorders are serious mental disorders, the prevalence of which is higher than that of virtually all other mental disorders of childhood and adolescence. What the myriad of anxiety disorders have in common is a state of increased arousal or fear (Barbee, 1998). Anxiety disorders often are conceptualized as an abnormal or exaggerated version of arousal. Much is known about arousal because of decades of study in animals and humans of the so-called “fight-or-flight response,” which is also referred to as the acute stress response. The acute stress response is critical to understanding the normal response to stressors and has galvanized research, but its limitations for understanding anxiety have come to the forefront in recent years.
In common parlance, the term “stress” refers either to the external stressor, which can be physical or psychosocial in nature, as well as to the internal response to the stressor. Yet researchers distinguish the two, calling the stressor the stimulus and the body’s reaction the stress response. This is an important distinction because in many anxiety states there is no immediate external stressor. The following paragraphs describe the biology of the acute stress response, as well as its limitations, in understanding human anxiety. Emerging views about the neurobiology of anxiety attempt to integrate and understand psychosocial views of anxiety and behavior in relation to the structure and function of the central and peripheral nervous system.
When a fearful or threatening event is perceived, humans react innately to survive: they either are ready for battle or run away. The nature of the acute stress response is all too familiar. Its hallmarks are an almost instantaneous surge in heart rate, blood pressure, sweating, breathing, and metabolism, and a tensing of muscles. Enhanced cardiac output and accelerated metabolism are essential for mobilizing fast action. The host of physiological changes activated by a stressful event are unleashed in part by activation of a nucleus in the brain stem called the locus ceruleus. This nucleus is the origin of most norepinephrine pathways in the brain. Neurons using norepinephrine as their neurotransmitter project bilaterally from the locus ceruleus along distinct pathways to the cerebral cortex, limbic system, and the spinal cord.

3. Translate from English into Russian in writing using a dictionary. Your time is 45 minutes
Anxiety
Normally, when someone is in a serene, non-stimulated state, the “firing” of neurons in the locus ceruleus is minimal. A novel stimulus, once perceived, is relayed from the sensory cortex of the brain through the thalamus to the brain stem. That route of signaling increases the rate of noradrenergic activity in the locus ceruleus, and the person becomes alert and attentive to the environment. If the stimulus is perceived as a threat, a more intense and prolonged discharge of the locus ceruleus activates the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. The activation of the sympathetic nervous system leads to the release of norepinephrine from nerve endings acting on the heart, blood vessels, respiratory centers, and other sites. The ensuing physiological changes constitute a major part of the acute stress response. The other major player in the acute stress response is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. In the 1980s, the prevailing view was that excess discharge of the locus ceruleus with the acute stress response was a major contributor to the etiology of anxiety. Yet over the past decade, the limitations of the acute stress response as a model for understanding anxiety have become more apparent. The first and most obvious limitation is that the acute stress response relates to arousal rather than anxiety. Anxiety differs from arousal in several ways. First, with anxiety, the concern about the stressor is out of proportion to the realistic threat. Second, anxiety is often associated with elaborate mental and behavioral activities designed to avoid the unpleasant symptoms of a full-blown anxiety or panic attack. Third, anxiety is usually longer lived than arousal. Fourth, anxiety can occur without exposure to an external stressor. Other limitations of this model became evident from a lack of support from clinical and basic research. Furthermore, with its emphasis on the neurotransmitter norepinephrine, the model could not explain why medications that acted on the neurotransmitter serotonin helped to alleviate anxiety symptoms. In fact, these medications are becoming the first-line treatment for anxiety disorders. To probe the etiology of anxiety, researchers began to devote their energies to the study of other brain circuits and the neurotransmitters on which they rely. The locus ceruleus still participates in anxiety but is understood to play a lesser role.

4. Translate from English into Russian in writing using a dictionary. Your time is 45 minutes
What is motivation?
Some concepts are quite useless in their broadest meaning. Motivation is such a concept. There is, however, a more restricted sense of the word, which is useful or even essential in any theory of cognition. This is the idea of motivation as a central state reflecting the combination of internal needs and external possibilities. In the motivational system, these two sources of information come together and they are used to form a decision on what to do. The representation of this decision constitutes the motivational state of the animal, which tells the animal what it should do.
In this chapter, we will try to investigate the role of motivation as a determinant of behavior and learning. We will try to show that motivation and emotion play an important role in cognitive processes. The traditional dichotomy between cognition and emotion is probably responsible for the lack of interest in motivational theories within cognitive science. This is unfortunate for a number of reasons.
First, there seems to be no clear distinction between cognition, motivation and emotion in our daily activities. For example, the planning of a vacation is usually considered to be a cognitive activity. Every step of the planning process is guided by one’s ideas of a good holiday, one’s hopes, fears, etc. Without this side of the planning process, the vacation would hardly be worth planning, since it could only result in any of an infinite number of equally valued plans, none of which would fit one’s requirements for a good holiday. It appears that all thinking is biased by emotive values in this way.
Next, cognition cannot be understood without reference to motivation. Higher cognitive processes like categorization and problem solving only play any role when they are used to fulfil some goal of the individual, that is, only when they are motivated. This is unfortunately an aspect of cognition that is often ignored.
Last, it is important to realize that motivation precedes cognition. Cognition depends on the motivational system, whereas the motivational system can operate without cognition. This point will be developed further. We will also argue that the role of emotions is to tell the animal what it should have done, when its expectations are inaccurate or its behavior is unsuccessful.

5. Translate from English into Russian in writing using a dictionary. Your time is 45 minutes
What is drive? Drive is probably one of the vaguest terms in psychology. It has been used in many different meanings, some of which have gained a very bad reputation. The use of drive that is intended here is as a state or value representing the urgency of a behavior. In some cases, a drive relates to a physiological state produced by a deprivation or increased levels of food, a hormone, etc. In other cases they relate to the presence of a noxious stimuli such as a loud noise, pain, heat, etc. In these cases, drives are equivalent to need states, but we will also allow constant drives, which compete with these more usual drives. Constant drives represent the relative importance of different engagements, which do not change over time.
Drives, thus, have the role of representing the relative importance of an engagement at a certain time. This implies that a creature must have one, or possibly many, drives for each of its innate engagements. We can identify at least six different types of drives.
Homeostatic drives. The first type of drive that we will consider is generated by violation of homeostasis. This includes, for example, hunger and thirst, but also the responses to heat and cold. Violation of homeostasis induces a drive signal into the motivational system. The probability of an engagement increases with larger deviation from the optimal level but the drive signal does not directly activate a behavior.
It is instructive to compare this notion of drives with the behavioral model proposed by Powers in 1973. Powers’ model is built on the assumption that the present action of an organism is a function of its present perceptions and an internal reference perception. These are compared to generate an error signal, which facilitates behavior. This is exactly the idea that the discrepancy between the present state of the organism and its desired state drives behavior. The idea of an error signal is very similar to the idea of a drive.
In Powers’ models, this idea is generalized to hierarchically connected comparators. The comparator on each level generates the reference perception to the system below it. What starts out as a mechanism for maintaining homeostasis has turned into a behavioral control system. In the process, the motivational system has disappeared and so has the ability of the system to select among different engagements. Though elegant, Powers’ model cannot explain the selection of one engagement among many when several discrepancies are present.

6. Translate from English into Russian in writing using a dictionary. Your time is 45 minutes
Delayed School Start Time Associated With Improvements in Adolescent Behaviors
"Beginning at the onset of puberty, adolescents develop as much as a two-hour sleep-wake phase delay (later sleep onset and wake times) relative to sleep-wake cycles in middle childhood," the authors write as background to the study. The study also notes that, "adolescent sleep needs do not decrease dramatically, and optimal sleep amounts remain about nine to 9 1/4 hours per night."
Judith A. Owens, M. D., M. P.H., of the Hasbro Children's Hospital, Providence, and colleagues, studied 201 students in grades 9 through 12 attending an independent high school in Rhode Island. For the purposes of the study, class start time was delayed 30 minutes, from 8 a. m. to 8:30 a. m. Additionally, students were required to complete the online retrospective Sleep Habits Survey before and after the change in school start time.
According to the study, after the delayed start time, "students reported significantly more satisfaction with sleep and experienced improved motivation. Daytime sleepiness, fatigue and depressed mood were all reduced. Most health-related variables, including Health Center visits for fatigue-related complaints, and class attendance also improved." The later start was also associated with a significant increase in sleep duration on school nights of 45 minutes as well as a reduction in weekend oversleep (the difference between school day and non-school day wake times).
The percentage of students getting less than seven hours of sleep decreased by 79.4 percent, and those reporting at least eight hours of sleep increased from 16.4 percent to 54.7 percent. Additionally, the percentage of students rating themselves as at least somewhat unhappy or depressed decreased significantly (from 65.8 percent to 45.1 percent), as well as the percentage who felt annoyed or irritated throughout the day (from 84 percent to 62.6 percent). In terms of health consequences, significantly more students self-reported visiting the Health Center for fatigue-related symptoms before the delayed start time (15.3 percent versus 4.6 percent).
The study also found that after the delayed start, "students rated themselves as less depressed and more motivated to participate in a variety of activities and were less likely to seek medical attention for fatigue-related concerns in conjunction with the change in start times." Additionally, "despite the initial considerable resistance voiced by the faculty and athletic coaches to instituting the start time delay and the original intentions of the school administration to return to the 8 a. m. start time after the trial period, students and faculty overwhelmingly voted to retain the 8:30 a. m. start for the spring term."

7. Translate from English into Russian in writing using a dictionary. Your time is 45 minutes
Children With Migraine At Increased Risk Of Sleep Disturbances
Children with migraine are more likely to have sleep disorders, such as sleep apnea and lack of sleep, than children without migraine, according to research on the effects of headaches on children's sleep patterns.
For the study, 90 children with headache and sleep problems underwent a polysomnogram, which is a sleep test that monitors the brain, eye movements, muscle activity, heart rhythm, and breathing. This is the first study to use this type of sleep test on children. Of the participants, 60 had migraine, 11 had chronic daily headache, six had tension headache and 13 had non-specific headache.
The study found the children with migraine were twice as likely as the other children in the study to have sleep apnea, otherwise known as sleep disordered breathing, which involves repeated arousals from sleep because the upper airway for breathing has been obstructed. Sleep disordered breathing was found in 56 percent of children with migraine versus 30 percent of children with non-migraine headache.
Severe migraine was also associated with shorter total sleep time, longer total time to fall asleep, and shorter REM sleep, which is the stage of sleep in which most dreams can be recalled.
"Sleeping problems can exacerbate the problems migraine causes on a child's health and may hinder a child's performance at school,"said study author Martina Vendrame, MD, PhD, with Temple University in Philadelphia, PA, and member of the American Academy of Neurology. "Parents and doctors need to be aware of the strong likelihood of sleep disorders in children with migraine and seek appropriate preventions and treatments."
The study also found 50 percent of children with tension headache grind their teeth at night compared to 2.4 percent of children with non-tension headache.
In addition, sleep disordered breathing was also frequent in children with non-specific headache and in children who were overweight.
This research was presented at the American Academy of Neurology 60th Anniversary Annual Meeting in Chicago, April 17, 2008.
The study was conducted at St. Christopher Hospital for Children, Drexel University, in Philadelphia, PA.

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New Link Between Pollution, Temperature and Sleep-Disordered Breathing
Researchers from Brigham and Women's Hospital and the Harvard School of Public Health have established the first link between air pollution and sleep-disordered breathing (SDB), a known cause of cardiovascular diseases.
Antonella Zanobetti, Ph. D., Susan Redline, MD, MPH, Diane Gold, M. D., M. P.H. and colleagues explored the link between air pollution levels, temperature increases and sleep-disordered breathing using data from the Sleep Heart Health Study, which included more than 6,000 participants between 1995 and 1998, and EPA air pollution monitoring data from Framingham (Massachusetts), Minneapolis, New York City, Phoenix, Pittsburgh, Sacramento, and Tucson.
SDB affects up to 17 percent of U. S. adults, many of whom are not aware that they have a problem. Air pollution is also an endemic issue in many of the nation's urban areas. Both SDB and pollution have been associated with a range of health problems, including increased cardiovascular mortality. "The influence of air pollution on SDB is poorly understood," said Dr. Zanobetti. "Our hypothesis was that elevation in ambient air pollution would be associated with an increased risk of SDB and nocturnal hypoxia, as well as with reduced sleep quality." The researchers further hypothesized that seasonal variations in temperature would exert an independent effect on SDB and sleep efficiency.
To test their hypotheses, the researchers used linear regression models that controlled for seasonality, mean temperature and other factors known to be associated with SDB, such as age, gender and smoking.
To examine the role of seasons, they performed a separate analysis, adding the interaction of season with the level of air pollution in the form of particulate matter under 10 μm, which is commonly associated with traffic. They evaluated long-term effects by computing the moving 365-day average of PM10.
In total, they included more than 3,000 individuals in their analysis.
Over all seasons, the researchers found that short-term elevations in temperature were associated with increased in Respiratory Disturbance Index (RDI), which was used to gauge the severity of SDB. In the summer, increases in PM10 were also associated with an increase in RDI (representing a 12.9 percent increase), as well as with an increase in the percent of time that blood oxygen saturation levels fell below 90 percent (representing a nearly 20 percent increase) and a decrease in sleep efficiency. There were no such statistically significant associations of particulate pollution with SDB in other seasons.