8. Read without a dictionary (Your time is 3-5 min.) and retell it in English Concentration Concentration depends in the first place on interest. The capacity for concentration depends, like the capacity for remembering, on interest. We remember best what interests us most deeply, because something what interests us makes a clearer and more vivid impression upon us at the time we encounter it. We assimilate it more easily and retain the impression longer. Without interest concentration is impossible, because interest not only increases the span of attention (i. e., the length of time an individual can, without interruption, concentrate on a given task) but also aids in the assimilation and retention of what one is trying to learn. Interests may be spontaneous or acquired. Most of us enter university with a keen interest in one or two subjects, but particular students will have difficulty in developing an interest in some parts of a university course. Where we have no interest in a subject, we have to develop it to give ourselves a motive for mastering it. Your interest in a scientific or technical field is likely to be enhanced by reading the history of science or technology or the biographies of great scientists and inventors. Your own thought will be stimulated by their way of solving the problems, the wrong ideas they followed, the observations or discoveries they made by chance, and the moments of insight that led them to important discoveries. It is important for the student to remember that it is the perception of relationships rather than differences that is the distinctive feature of a creative thinker. Franklin was the first to perceive the relationship between a flash of lightning and an electric spark; Harvey’s perception that the valves of a vein resemble those of a pump led him to the discovery of blood circulation.
9. Read without a dictionary (Your time is 3-5 min.) and retell it in English How biologists work today
I doubt if any experimental biologist today, unless actually engaged in the problem of race differentiation in man, tries to interpret his findings in terms of human evolution, or ever refers to it in his thinking. He gathers his data from the study of many species of plants and animals and tries to work out the laws of inheritance in the particular type upon which he is conducting experiments. Naturally, he follows the progress of the work upon race differentiation in man and in the descent of man, but he looks upon these as special topics, equal in importance with his own yet ones in which his interests will never be vitally engaged. It is not fair to say that all of his work is directed toward human evolution or that it must be interpreted in terms of human evolution. He does not have to dismiss certain of his facts on the inheritance of coat color in mice because, forsooth, they have little bearing upon the differentiation of the genus homo into separate races, or upon the descent of the genus homo from some more primitive stock.
10. Read without a dictionary (Your time is 3-5 min.) and retell it in English Strength of Will as a Personality Trait The first man abandons effort when he meets an obstacle and becomes violent when he is angry; the second man also meets external obstacles and impulses to violence but he continues his effort in spite of the obstacle and can check his impulse to violence when he is angry. The latter is spoken of as a man of strong will. He may, of course, decide on a particular occasion to allow his anger to express itself in violence. When we say that he is strong-willed, we mean that he seems to be able to decide whether his anger shall be expressed in one way or another. Our impression of his character is that he is able to decide whether to oppose or to give way to forces, which tend to give direction to his behavior, while a weak-willed man seems to be much more at the mercy of these forces. The personality trait, which corresponds to this quality, is generally called persistence. The capacity for persisting in a task when other people would give it up is one aspect of the capacity for volitional control, which has the advantage that it may be measured. The first indication that there was such a measurable trait of character came from Webb who analyzed the factor called W from a number of test performances.
11. Read without a dictionary (Your time is 3-5 min.) and retell it in English Why learning?
The role of motivation compared to learning was clearly shown in an experiment by Clark. A number of rats were trained to press a bar in order to obtain food. The rats were then placed in different groups and deprived of food for between 1 and 23 hours. The longer the rats had been deprived of food, the faster they pressed the bar to obtain it. Since all the rats had received equal training, the differences could not be due to differences in learning. Consequently, the experiment shows that motivation, or in this case, the deprivation of food, plays a significant role in determining behavior.
Hull proposed that deprivation induced an aversive state in the organism. This state was called a drive. In his conception, drive increases the overall level of arousal in an animal. Drive was thus considered as a property of need states, which motivates behavior. Hull considered drive to have an overall effect on behavior in that it energizes it, but does not determine what behavior is performed. This is usually called a generalized drive and has now been replaced by the concept of arousal.
Later studies have shown that the role of drive is to selectively increase the frequency of behaviors likely to reduce the drive. In Hull’s formulation an increased drive caused by deprivation of food would increase the likelihood of any behavior, not only of eating. Taking this into account, we must relate both the drive and the incentive to a particular type of motivation.
12. Read without a dictionary (Your time is 3-5 min.) and retell it in English Incentive
Schachter (1970) describes a number of interesting studies concerning the distinction between internal and external cues as determinant of behavior. It appears that different individuals are more or less likely to base their actions on internal or external cues, respectively. A number of experiments show a striking difference between normal and obese subjects. While in normal subjects, their self-reports of hunger feelings coincide closely with stomach contractions recorded by a gastric balloon, obese subjects show no such correlation. Instead, their eating habits seem to be almost exclusively controlled by external cues, or as formulated by Buck, “they are, in effect, on a see-food diet: if they see food, they eat it.” Although the theory is not impeccable, there are several experiments, which show that obese people and rats respond more readily to external stimuli than to internal needs. This is true not only for food-related cues but also for all types of external stimuli. If nothing else, these studies surely motivate the distinction between drive and incentive. We may distinguish between two types of incentives. The first type can be called external incentive. This type of incentive is directly generated by an external object such as food. We have also introduced another determinant of motivation called internal incentive. This third determinant should be distinguished from external incentive in that it is not directly derived from the external goal stimulus, but it must be generated by a more complex internal process whether this be the result of secondary conditioning, planning or even some innate structure. It is also possible to distinguish between primary and secondary incentives.
13. Read without a dictionary (Your time is 3-5 min.) and retell it in English Human –factors engineering
The terms human-factors engineering and human engineering are used interchangeably on the North American continent. In Europe, Japan, and most of the rest of the world the prevalent term is ergonomics, a word made up of the Greek words, ergon, meaning “work,” and nomos, meaning “law.” Despite minor differences in emphasis, the terms human-factors engineering and ergonomics may be considered synonymous. Human factors and human engineering were used in the 1920s and '30s to refer to problems of human relations in industry, an older connotation that has gradually dropped out of use. Some small specialized groups prefer such labels as bioastronautics, biodynamics, bioengineering, and manned-systems technology;these represent special emphases whose differences are much smaller than the similarities in their aims and goals.
The data and principles of human-factors engineering are concerned with human performance, behaviour, and training in man-machine systems; the design and development of man-machine systems; and systems-related biological or medical research. Because of its broad scope, human-factors engineering draws upon parts of such social or physiological sciences as anatomy, anthropometry, applied physiology, environmental medicine, psychology, sociology, and toxicology, as well as parts of engineering, industrial design, and operations research.
14. Read without a dictionary (Your time is 3-5 min.) and retell it in English 'And they call this psychology!'
In psychology we are still in that stage of development where we feel that we must select our material. We have a general place of discard for processes, which we anathematize so far as their value for psychology is concerned by saying, 'this is a reflex'; 'that is a purely physiological fact which has nothing to do with psychology'. We are not interested (as psychologists) in getting all of the processes of adjustment which the animal as a whole employs, and in finding how these various responses are associated, and how they fall apart, thus working out a systematic scheme for the prediction and control of response in general. Unless our observed facts are indicative of consciousness, we have no use for them, and unless our apparatus and method are designed to throw such facts into relief, they are thought of in just as disparaging a way. I shall always remember the remark one distinguished psychologist made as he looked over the color apparatus designed for testing the responses of animals to monochromatic light in the attic at Johns Hopkins. It was this: 'And they call this psychology!'
15. Read without a dictionary (Your time is 3-5 min.) and retell it in English Psychology and consciousness
The time seems to have come when psychology must discard all reference to consciousness; when it need no longer delude itself into thinking that it is making mental states the object of observation. We have become so enmeshed in speculative questions concerning the elements of mind, the nature of conscious content that I, as an experimental student, feel that something is wrong with our premises and the types of problems which develop from them. There is no longer any guarantee that we all mean the same thing when we use the terms now current in psychology. Take the case of sensation. A sensation is defined in terms of its attributes. One psychologist will state with readiness that the attributes of a visual sensation are quality, extension, duration, and intensity. I doubt if any one psychologist can draw up a set of statements describing what he means by sensation which will be agreed to by three other psychologists of different training. Turn for a moment to the question of the number of isolable sensations. Is there an extremely large number of color sensations -- or only four, red, green, yellow and blue? Again, yellow, while psychologically simple, can be obtained by superimposing red and green spectral rays upon the same diffusing surface!
16. Read without a dictionary (Your time is 3-5 min.) and retell it in English Functional psychology
The last fifteen years have seen the growth of what is called functional psychology. This type of psychology decries the use of elements in the static sense of the structuralists. It throws emphasis upon the biological significance of conscious processes instead of upon the analysis of conscious states into introspectively isolable elements. The terms sensation, perception, affection, emotion, volition are used as much by the functionalist as by the structuralist. The addition of the word 'process' after each serves in some way to remove the corpse of content' and to leave 'function' in its stead. It is rather interesting that no functional psychologist has carefully distinguished between 'perception' as employed by the systematist, and cperceptual process' as used in functional psychology. It seems illogical and hardly fair to criticize the psychology which the systematist gives us, and then to utilize his terms without carefully showing the changes in meaning which are to be attached to them. I was greatly surprised some time ago when I opened Pillsbury's book and saw psychology defined as the 'science of behavior'. A still more recent text states that psychology is the 'science of mental behavior'.
17. Read without a dictionary (Your time is 3-5 min.) and retell it in English How functionalists work?
One of the difficulties in the way of a consistent functional psychology is the parallelistic hypothesis. If the functionalist attempts to express his formulations in terms which make mental states really appear to function, to play some active role in the world of adjustment, he almost inevitably lapses into terms which are connotative of interaction. When taxed with this he replies that it is more convenient to do so and that he does it to avoid the circumlocution and clumsiness which are inherent in any thoroughgoing parallelism.3 As a matter of fact I believe the functionalist actually thinks in terms of interaction and resorts to parallelism only when forced to give expression to his views. I feel that behaviorism is the only consistent and logical functionalism. In it one avoids both the Scylla of parallelism and the Charybdis of interaction. Those time-honored relics of philosophical speculation need trouble the student of behavior as little as they trouble the student of physics. The consideration of the mind-body problem affects neither the type of problem selected nor the formulation of the solution of that problem. I can state my position here no better than by saying that I should like to bring my students up in the same ignorance of such hypotheses as one finds among the students of other branches of science.
18. Read without a dictionary (Your time is 3-5 min.) and retell it in English Strength of Will as a Personality Trait It is a common opinion that the “strength of will,” i. e., the capacity for volitional control of behavior is a personality trait of considerable importance, which differs in amount from one individual to another. It is also commonly supposed that it is a trait, which can be strengthened by use and weakened by disuse. This second opinion still lacks experimental confirmation, although it may well prove to be true. There is now, however, a considerable body of evidence in favor of the truth of the opinion that the capacity for volitional control is a personality trait whose amount differs in different individuals. The common observation on which this opinion is based is that one man seems to be swayed by external things and by his own impulses, while another seems to have the power of opposing and controlling them. The first man abandons effort when he meets an obstacle and becomes violent when he is angry; the second man also meets external obstacles and impulses to violence but he continues his effort in spite of the obstacle and can check his impulse to violence when he is angry. The latter is spoken of as a man of strong will. He may, of course, decide on a particular occasion to allow his anger to express itself in violence.
19. Read without a dictionary (Your time is 3-5 min.) and retell it in English Why learning? Learning is just one determinant of behavior. The other important determinant is motivation. Some early theories did not consider motivation as a source of behavioral direction. Instead, they focused on learning alone. For example, the experiments of Pavlov did essentially ignore the role of motivation. This is curious, since the classical association of a bell with salivation could only be learned when the dog was hungry. A satiated dog simply does not show the salivation reflexes.
In Thorndike’s experiments, the role of motivation was even less clear. The cat in its box was given food when it had managed to escape, but this was more or less an afterthought. It was never clearly established whether the cat tried to escape because it wanted food or because confinement is averse to the animal.
The role of motivation compared to learning was clearly shown in an experiment by Clark. A number of rats were trained to press a bar in order to obtain food. The rats were then placed in different groups and deprived of food for between 1 and 23 hours. The longer the rats had been deprived of food, the faster they pressed the bar to obtain it. Since all the rats had received equal training, the differences could not be due to differences in learning. Consequently, the experiment shows that motivation, or in this case, the deprivation of food, plays a significant role in determining behavior.
20. Read without a dictionary (Your time is 3-5 min.) and retell it in English Reflex
The reflex is also a simple innate pattern reaction in which a movement of a serviceable kind is carried out. It differs from tropism in that it is a response, in which conduction of an impulse along nerve fibers plays an essential part. This is exemplified by such reactions as blinking of the eyes when an object approaches them, sneezing caused by irritation of the inner membrane of the nose, the dog’s scratching when it is stimulated anywhere over the saddle-shaped area on his back. or the dilatation and closing of the iris of the eyes in dim and bright light, respectively. It will be noticed that these are all responses to stimulation produced by something in its environment and that the response is serviceable to the body. Blinking protects the eyes from a noxious contact, sneezing and the dog’s scratching are methods of removing the object making the contact, while changes in the iris diameter keep fairly constant the amount of light admitted to the retina under different conditions of external illumination. Some of these reactions come normally into consciousness and are to a large extent under conscious control, e. g., the sneeze, while others cannot be made the objects of introspective observation and cannot be controlled, e. g., the changes in the diameter of the iris. Psychologically, a reflex action requires at least three different structures: an organ for the reception of the stimulus (the receptor), a conducting nerve path leading to the organ at which the reaction takes place (the conductor), and the organ, muscle or gland, which reacts (the effector).
21. Read without a dictionary (Your time is 3-5 min.) and retell it in English Incentive
According to Hull the idea that motivation is determined by two factors. The first is the need state or drive. The second is the incentive, that is, the presence of an external stimulus that predicts a future reduction of the need of an animal. For example, the presentation of food would constitute an incentive to a hungry the process of secondary conditioning, other the stimuli, which predict food, can also become incentives.
Schachter (1970) describes a number of interesting studies concerning the distinction between internal and external cues as determinant of behavior. It appears that different individuals are more or less likely to base their actions on internal or external cues, respectively. A number of experiments show a striking difference between normal and obese subjects. While in normal subjects, their self-reports of hunger feelings coincide closely with stomach contractions recorded by a gastric balloon, obese subjects show no such correlation. Instead, their eating habits seem to be almost exclusively controlled by external cues, or as formulated by Buck, “they are, in effect, on a see-food diet: if they see food, they eat it.” Although the theory is not impeccable, there are several experiments, which show that obese people and rats respond more readily to external stimuli than to internal needs. This is true not only for food-related cues but also for all types of external stimuli. If nothing else, these studies surely motivate the distinction between drive and incentive.
22. Read without a dictionary (Your time is 3-5 min.) and retell it in English Human –factors engineering
The term human-factors engineering is used to designate equally a body of knowledge, a process, and a profession. As a body of knowledge, human-factors engineering is a collection of data and principles about human characteristics, capabilities, and limitations in relation to machines, jobs, and environments. As a process, it refers to the design of machines, machine systems, work methods, and environments to take into account the safety, comfort, and productiveness of human users and operators. As a profession, human-factors engineering includes a range of scientists and engineers from several disciplines that are concerned with individuals and small groups at work.
The terms human-factors engineering and human engineering are used interchangeably on the North American continent. In Europe, Japan, and most of the rest of the world the prevalent term is ergonomics, a word made up of the Greek words, ergon, meaning “work,” and nomos, meaning “law.” Despite minor differences in emphasis, the terms human-factors engineering and ergonomics may be considered synonymous. Human factors and human engineering were used in the 1920s and '30s to refer to problems of human relations in industry, an older connotation that has gradually dropped out of use.
III. ВОПРОС № 3
1. Speak on the following question (10-12 sentences). How did you choose the topic of your thesis?
2. Speak on the following question (10-12 sentences). Has anybody recommended you the topic of your thesis?
3. Speak on the following question (10-12 sentences). What is the main idea of your thesis?
4. Speak on the following question (10-12 sentences). What were your reasons for choosing the topic of your thesis?
5. Speak on the following question (10-12 sentences). Has your supervisor recommended you the topic of your thesis?
6. Speak on the following question (10-12 sentences). Why have you decided to write your thesis?
7. Speak on the following question (10-12 sentences). Do you think your thesis will help you in your career?
8. Speak on the following question (10-12 sentences). What practical use will your thesis have?
9. Speak on the following question (10-12 sentences). Do you think your thesis will have any practical use?
10. Speak on the following question (10-12 sentences). What does your first chapter of the thesis deal with?
11. Speak on the following question (10-12 sentences). Is your thesis connected with your diploma paper?
12. Speak on the following question (10-12 sentences). Have you got the plan for your thesis yet?
13. Speak on the following question (10-12 sentences). Have you written annotation for your thesis yet?
14. Speak on the following question (10-12 sentences). Have you got any publications on the topic of your thesis yet?
15. Speak on the following question (10-12 sentences). Have you read any articles on the topic of your thesis?
16. Speak on the following question (10-12 sentences). What is the aim of your thesis?
17. Speak on the following question (10-12 sentences). What is the subject of your thesis?
18. Speak on the following question (10-12 sentences). What is the object of your thesis?
19. Speak on the following question (10-12 sentences). What are the methods you are going to use working at your thesis?
20. Speak on the following question (10-12 sentences). How will your thesis help you in your future work?
Разработчик:
, канд. филол. наук, доц. Кафедры «Лингвистика» _______________
Эксперт:
, д-р. филологических наук профессор декан факультета иностранных языков
Университета РАО __________________
Согласовано:
, канд. филол. наук, доц., зав. кафедрой «Лингвистика» ____________
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