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TEXT 9. EMULSION, COLLOIDS
A
Vocabulary
insoluble нерастворимый
is effected сделан, приготовлен
emulsion эмульсия
salad салат
dressing приправа
oil масло
vinegar уксус
colloidal коллоидальный
to appear - clear казаться прозрачным
under ordinary conditions в обычных условиях
to subject подвергать
powerful мощный
illumination освещение
plainly легко
completely полностью
homogeneous однородный
If a mixture of two liquids, each insoluble in the other, is effected, the result is called an emulsionjSalad dressing, made by mixing oil and vinegar, is an emulsion.
The fourth type of liquid mixture, called a colloidal solution, differs from any of those already described. Like a true solution, a colloidal solution appears clear when looked at under ordinary conditions. When, however, it is subjected to a powerful illumination, one can see plainly that it is not completely homogeneous.
В
Vocabulary
fail to coagulate не коагулируют
to a degree до величины, степени
sufficient достаточный
it is believed счятают
property свойство
colloid коллоид
is due to the fact объясняется тем
electrical state наэлектризованное состояние
are similarly charged одинаково заряжены
hydrochloric acid соляная кислота (НС1)
neutralize нейтрализовать
precipitation осаждение
Colloidal substances, of which there are many examples among natural products, do not, therefore, form true solutions. Indeed, they fail to coagulate or to crystallize to a degree sufficient for filtration. It is believed that this property of colloids is due to the fact that all the particles are in an electrical state, in which they are similarly charged. The addition of common salt or hydrochloric acid to certain colloidal solutions serves to neutralize the electrical state and so brings about 'precipitation.
C
Vocabulary
nature природа
cell клетка
sap сок (растений)
rubber tree каучуконос
proteins протеины
tremendous огромный
artificial искусственный
tanning дубление кожи
dyeing красильное дело
Colloids exist in nature in the cells of plants and animals, in the sap of certain plants, among which is the rubber tree, and in the class of foods called proteins. Colloids have recently come to be of tremendous importance in certain manufacturing processes, including the making of glass, rubber, artificial silk, tanning leather and dyeing.
2.2.3 ПРАКТИКА ПЕРЕВОДА ТЕХНИЧЕСКИХ ТЕКСТОВ И РАБОТЫ С НИМИ
TEXT 1
Предтекстовые упражнения к тексту 1
I. Переведите на русский язык следующие интернациональные слова и словосочетания:
industrial processes, mathematical, cybernetics, control, information, theoretical principles, technical cybernetics, algorithm, instruction, command, signal, communication, channel, physical systems, transmission function, optimum, parameters, criteria, categories, program, arithmetical, operations, code, indices, automatic control, specialist
II. Переведите на русский язык следующие глаголы:
to create, to design, to solve, to define, to refer to, to ensure, to develop, to process, to actuate, to modify, to assign, io embrace, to yield, to translate, to adopt, to work out, to employ, to fulfil, to describe, to investigate, to imply, to accomplish, to elaborate, to reflect, to insert, to control, to secure, to realize, to produce, to amplify, to feed, to follow, to utilize, to handle, to direct, to pave the way, to impose, to call for, to signify
III. Переведите на русский язык следующие словосочетания:
high-speed machines, automatic control, live systems, outcome of events, phenomenon under study, broader sense, engineering sciences, realm of knowledge, closed-loop communication, complicated task, profound research, elaborate designing, working hypotheses, control algorithms, reproduction of information, subsequent processing, quantitative relationship, linking together, control loop, efficient operation, appropriate transducers, initial conditions, derived solution, control elements, abrupt changes, qualitative changes, correct choice, optimum process, internal potentialities, related commands, unified system, final control elements, school of thought, general-purpose, special-purpose
IV. Переведите текст с английского языка на русский со словарем.
Computers and cybernetics
1. The computers or high-speed electronic machines of today have created entirely new technical possibilities in automatic control of industrial processes. First designed for solving mathematical problems, they soon paved the way for a new field of science—cybernetics that studies general principles of control both in live and non-live systems.
2. The importance of cybernetics is particularly great in the sphere of engineering sciences. A newly developed field of knowledge is technical cybernetics. Its objectives are to control automatic industrial processes, to study problems of transmission of information and to develop new principles of automatic control.
3. The development of a control computer begins with the study of the objects or units to be controlled. This is followed by the development of working hypotheses about the character of processes taking place in the units, and finally, elaboration of control algorithms.
4. The quantitative relationships of the process being controlled are described by mathematical equations linking together certain functions, some of which are known and others are to be found.
5. The computing device is inserted into the automatic control circuit and made to find optimum solutions to the above-mentioned equations, and control the process, securing the most efficient operation on the basis of computed results.
6. The unit being controlled has transducers which determine the initial conditions and values in the equations being solved.
7. Using the optimum solutions the computing unit of the machine produces the data necessary to form the control signals. The control elements are actuated by operational units specially designed for the purpose. The modified process variables are again fed to the computing device and the cycle of control is repeated.
8. One of the main problems of technical cybernetics is the development of control algorithms to be used in processing and control of information flows. The algorithms worked out for employment in control machines are called programs. These are based on subdivision of the computation process into simple arithmetical operations and on determitiation of the logical operations to be performed with a view to fulfil ths program which gives the sequence of the machine's operations, and must be coded or expressed in the adopted code system.
9. Two systems of computers are now created for control computer design. One of these is the development of general-purpose control machines which may have much wider application but require more complicated logical circuitry and a greater number of instructions and commands employed in the computer. This approach permits control of a great variety of industrial units with the aid of one and the same computer.
10. The second system utilizes modern microcomputer techniques to develop special-purpose machines designed to control a particular process. This leads to the creation of more easily operated, and low-cost control computers. Tests of some control computers manufactured for specific industrial units have shown their efficiency and quite sufficient reliability.
11. In the Soviet Union, both systems of control are applied. Extensive work is carried out in research and design to create special-purpose control computers. Centralized systems of automatic control for industrial plants by means of general-purpose computers are being created.
12. Electronic digital computers perform both arithmetical and logical operations, making it possible to govern processes under rather complicated conditions.
Mathematical devices of continuous action are employed in control machines to direct various technological processes.
13. Application of control computers in industry calls for a great advance in all related branches of science and engineering. Modern measuring instruments must ensure the desired speed and accuracy of measurement of all process variables and initial data necessary for solving a problem.
A considerable increase in the number of variables to be measured and exacting requirements of speed and accuracy of their measurement call for entirely new physical methods and metrological instruments. Control computers signify a tremendous advance in the development of automatic control systems for industrial processes.
V. Ответьте на следующие вопросы:
1. What are computers used for? 2. What is information and why do we need it? 3. What are the main parts of a computer? 4. What is an algorithm? 5. What types of computers are used today? 6. What is a program? 7. What is a command and how does a computer obey the command?
TEXT 2
Vocabulary
beam балка
to bend сгибать
rods арматура
hooked ends загнутые концы
compression сжатие
tension растяжение
reinforced concrete железобетон
prestressed concrete предварительно-напряженный бетон
nut гайка
screw болт
Предтекстовые упражнения к тексту 2
I. Переведите на русский язык следующие глаголы и причастия:
to support | supporting | is supported |
to stretch | stretching | is stretched |
to pull | pulling | is pulled |
to tension | tensioning | is tensioned |
to place | placing | is placed |
To compress | compressing | is compressed |
to lengthen | lengthening | is lengthened |
to prestress | prestressing | is prestressed |
to fix | fixing | is fixed |
To prevent | preventing | is prevented |
to heat | heating | is heated |
II. Переведите на русский язык следующие словосочетания:
own weight, hooked end, chief weakness, along its length, interior part, dwelling-places
New building materials
When a horizontal beam is supported at each end (1) but not in the middle, it bends. The bending is caused by the beam's own weight and by the weight of anything that it has to support. When it bends, the bottom surface is normally in tension; (2) it is pulled in the direction of its length. If the total load is too heavy, the beam will break, and if it is a concrete beam, its chief weakness is in the lower surface, which is in tension.
Steel rods may be placed inside concrete beams while the mixture is still wet, and if these rods have hooked ends, they will grip the concrete (3) and tend to prevent stretching. The steel and concrete together make a good combination to resist compression and tension, and such material is known as reinforced concrete or ferro-concrete.
If the concrete is in the form of a beam which is to be used in a horizontal position, these rods can be placed inside it, but they need not go through the middle. Most of the tension will be along the lower surface, and therefore that is the best place for the rods.
Because concrete does not resist tension well,(4) a system is now in use in which it is not stretched. This is not as difficult to arrange as it seems to be. The concrete beanris compressed along its length by means of steel rods inside it; these rods remain in the beam and therefore the concrete is always compressed unless some greater force tries to pull it apart. As long as the beam is not lengthened more than it is already compressed, the concrete will never be in tension.
Suppose, for example, that the compression in the concrete (caused by the steel rods) is 1,000 pounds per square inch and that the force pulling the beam lengthways (5) when it is in position is 700 pounds per square inch. In that case the concrete is still compressed by a force equal to 300 pounds per square inch, and so it is not in tension at all.(6)
Such material is called prestressed concrete. Holes are often left in the beam when it is made; then the steel rods are placed in the holes and fixed at one end. Nuts on screws at the other end are turned to compress the concrete, or the beam may be compressed by powerful machinery.
There is another method of preventing tension from arising in a beam. If it is arched, and if its ends press against a firm abutment, any pressure on its top surface will tend to compress it instead of putting the lower edge in tension. This is therefore a good system to use with a concrete beam.
The steel rods which pass through an arch may themselves be straight, so that in the middle of the arch they are near the lower surface. If the beam is straight, the same kind of result may be obtained by allowing the rods to be curved or bent, so that they pass along the lower surfaces in the middle of the beam.
Prestressed concrete can be used where ordinary concrete would fail.(7) High buildings are now made with this material and its use has greatly increased. Smaller houses in the city gradually give place to big blocks owing to the great demand for land. In northern countries, where the weather is a constant nuisance to the citizens, even the streets may be roofed over.(8)
Concrete is a bad conductor of heat; moreover, it does not catch fire.(9) These are two great advantages in a building, and especially in a high building. Even if the furniture or the wooden floors are set on fire, and the surfaces of the concrete walls are heated, the interior parts of the walls do not become very hot for the concrete does not conduct heat. The danger of fire in dwelling places is therefore decreasing, and the use of electricity instead of gas and oil for lighting and heating helps in this matter.
ПРИМЕЧАНИЯ:
(1) is supported at each end – имеет опоры на концах
(2) in tension – в состоянии растяжения
(3) will grip the concrete – схватят бетон
(4) does not resist tension well – довольно плохо сопротивляется растяжению
(5) pulling the beam lengthways – растягивающая балку в продольном направлении
(6) it is not in tension at all – совсем без растяжения
(7) where ordinary concrete would fail – где обычный бетон разрушится
(8) even the streets may be roofed over – даже целые улицы могут быть перекрыты
(9) to catch fire – загораться
III. Ответьте на следующие вопросы:
1. Why is it called reinforced concrete? 2. What is prestressed concrete? 3. What is concrete? 4. Why does concrete not catch fire?
UNIT 3. INDUSTRY
TEXT 1. ELECTRIC POWER
Vocabulary
Power – энергия, мощность
to generate – генерировать, производить, создавать
to convert – преобразовывать
to fall – падать, уменьшать
conversion – преобразование, конверсия
to drive – приводить в движение, управлять
burning coal – сгорание угля
fossil fuels – ископаемое топливо, минеральное топливо
steam – пар
internal combustion engine – двигатель внутреннего сгорания
fissioning – распад
lead – свинец
to transmit – передавать
alternating current – переменный ток
measuring – измерение
electromotive force – электродвижущая сила
inexpensive – недорогой
to improve – улучшать
standard of living – уровень жизни
industrial – промышленный
purpose – цель, потребность
1. Translate the text into Russian
Electric power is generated by converting heat, light, chemical energy, or mechanical energy to electrical energy. Most electrical energy is produced in large power stations by the conversion of mechanical energy or heat. The mechanical energy of falling water is used to drive turbine generators in hydroelectric stations, and the heat derived by burning coal, oil, or other fossil fuels is used to operate steam turbines or internal-combustion engines that drive electric generators. Also, the heat from the fissioning of uranium or plutonium is used to generate steam for the turbine generator in a nuclear power plant.
Electricity generated by the conversion of light or chemical energy is used mainly for portable power sources. For example, a photoelectric cell converts the energy from light to electrical energy for operating the exposure meter in a camera, and a lead-acid battery converts chemical energy to electrical energy for starting an automobile engine.
Electric power produced in large power stations generally is transmitted in using an alternating current that reverses direction 25, 50, or 60 times per second. The basic unit for measuring electric power is the watt the rate at which work is being done in an electric circuit in which the current is one ampere and the electromotive force is one volt. Ratings for power plants are expressed in kilowatts (1,000 watts) or megawatts (1 million watts). Electric energy consumption normally is given in kilowatt-hours - that is, the number of kilowatts used times the number of hours of use. Electricity is clean, inexpensive, and easily transmitted over long distances. Since the 1880's, electricity has had an ever-increasing role in improving the standard of living. It now is used to operate lights, pumps, elevators, power tools, furnaces, refrigerators, air-conditioners, radios, television sets, industrial machinery, and many other kinds of equipment. It has been counted that in developed countries about 43% of the electric power is generally used for industrial purposes, 32% in homes, and 21% in commercial enterprises.
2. General understanding:
1) What is an electric power? How is it produced?
2) How is electricity used mainly?
3) What is the basic unit for measuring electric power?
4) What does kilowatt-hours means?
5) What advantages of electricity can you name?
3. Find the following words and word combinations in the text:
электроэнергия
преобразование тепла, света, химической или механической энергии
падающая вода
гидроэлектростанции
сжигание угля, нефти или другого топлива
паровая турбина
двигатель внутреннего сгорания
распад урана и плутония
портативные источники энергии
автомобильный двигатель
переменный ток
измерение
электрическая цепь
электродвижущая сила
легко передается на длинные расстояния
улучшение уровня жизни
посчитано, что…
промышленные цели
TEXT 2. SOURCES OF POWER
Vocabulary
mankind – человечество
power – энергия
machines – механизмы, машины
communication – связь
require – требовать
obtain – получать
fossil fuels – окаменелые ископаемые
conventional – простой, обычный
convert - преобразовывать
ever-lasting – бесконечный
increase – возрастать
utilizе – использовать
promising – обещающий
ocean tides – океанские приливы
capacity – мощность
efficiency – эффективность
1. Translate the text into Russian
The industrial progress of mankind is based on power: power for industrial plants, machines, heating and lighting systems, transport, communication. In fact, one can hardly find a sphere where power is not required.
At present most of the power required is obtained mainly from two sources. One is from the burning of fossil fuels, i. e. coal, natural gas and oil. The second way of producing electricity is by means of generators that get their power from steam or water turbines. Electricity so produced then flows through transmission lines to houses, industrial plants, enterprises, etc.
It should be noted, however, that the generation of electricity by these conventional processes is highly uneconomic. Actually, only about 40 per cent of heat in the fuel is converted into electricity. Besides, the world resources of fossil fuels are not ever-lasting. On the other hand, the power produced by hydroelectric plants, even if increased many times, will be able to provide for only a small fraction of the power required in the near future. Therefore much effort and thought is being given to other means of generating electricity.
One is the energy of hot waters. Not long ago we began utilizing hot underground water for heating and hot water supply, and in some cases, for the generation of electricity.
Another promising field for the production of electric power is the use of ocean tides. Our engineers are engaged in designing tidal power stations of various capacities. The first station utilizing this principle began operating in the Soviet Union on the Barents Sea in 1968.
The energy of the sun which is being used in various ways represents a practically unlimited source.
Using atomic fuel for the production of electricity is highly promising. It is a well-known fact, that one pound of uranium contains as much energy as three million pounds of coal, so cheap power can be provided wherever it is required. However, the efficiency reached in generating power from atomic fuel is not high, namely 40 per cent.
No wonder, therefore, that scientists all over the world are doing their best to find more efficient ways of generating electricity directly from the fuel. They already succeeded in developing some processes which are much more efficient, as high as 80 per cent, and in creating a number of devices capable of giving a higher efficiency. Scientists are hard at work trying to solve these and many other problems.
2. Translate into English:
промышленный прогресс человечества
отопительные и осветительные системы
едва ли можно назвать сферу, где энергия не используется
в основном из двух источников
сгорание топлива
посредством генераторов
линии передач
крайне неэкономично
преобразуется в электричество
не бесконечны
даже если увеличить во много раз
энергия горячей воды
энергия солнца
практически неограниченный источник
атомное топливо
дешевая энергия
более эффективные пути получения энергии
решить эту и многие другие проблемы
3. Make the plan of the text and retell it.
TEXT 2. HYDROGEN – SOURCE OF POWER
1. Translate the text into Russian
Scientists consider hydrogen a very promising energy source. The reserves of hydrogen are practically unlimited. Per unit of weight it contains almost three times more thermal energy than benzene. Besides, hydrogen can be used as fuel in transport, industry and home.
Hydrogen is easy to transport and store. It can be transported over large distances using conventional pipelines. It can be accumulated and kept for a long time either in conventional or natural reservoirs.
Scientists have found many ways of producing hydrogen – basically from ordinary water. And large volumes of this fuel can be obtained from coal, whose global reserves are tremendous. There is also an idea of using nuclear power plants to generate hydrogen. Scientists hope to use the energy of the sun, wind and tides to obtain hydrogen.
In several countries car engines fed by hydrogen have been tested successfully. Tests have also shown that adding five to ten per cent hydrogen to benzene increases engine efficiency byper cent.
What is still holding back the use of hydrogen as fuel, and what has to be done in order to apply it extensively in the economy? The main reason is that now it is more expensive than mineral fuels, but in the near future hydrogen can be made cheaper to obtain. This new kind of energy opens up new prospects in aviation, metallurgy and some other industries.
2. Translate from Russian into English:
Ученые полагают, что…
запасы водорода неиссякаемы
в три раза больше тепловой энергии
транспортировать и хранить
большие расстояния
обычный трубопровод
собирать и хранить
много способов производства водорода
запасы огромны
двигатели, работающие от водорода
добавление от пяти до десяти процентов водорода
намного дороже, чем
открывает новые перспективы
TEXT 3. ATOMIC ENERGY
1. Translate the text into Russian.
There are many sources of power. Wind and water are the oldest ones. For centuries coal, oil, wind and water were widely used by man. They were used to produce steam and electricity.
Our time is the age of atomic energy. Scientists of many countries have been working hard for more than a century to find out the secret of the atom. Now the energy of the atom is applied to all the fields of man's activity.
The atom is the smallest piece of the substance which can exist independently. Atoms are electrically neutral, having no electric charge in their normal state. An atom consists of electrons, protons and neutrons. An electron is very small and it has a very small mass. It is negatively charged. The nucleus consists of a number of protons, each with a single positive charge and one or more neutrons, which have no charge. The amount of electricity of any proton is exactly the same as that of an electron. That is why all the atoms are electrically neutral. The electrical nature of atoms is only evident when one starts breaking them into pieces, electrons and others.
At the same time with large atomic stations smaller mobile electricity producing units have been created based on the discovery of radioactive sources – isotopes. Mobile nuclear installations may be carried by rail and then by transporters to the out-of-the-way regions even in areas having no ch a station according to estimates can operate without being recharged for two years.
Today scientists are looking for new more efficient nuclear processes of producing energy. But it was only lately that the physicists understood that the process of producing tremendous energy by stars, including our Sun, was the very process they were looking for. Now we know that this thermonuclear process is called fusion and it takes place at fantastically high temperatures. It can be done only by imitating on the Earth the process that makes the Sun shine.
There are many difficult problems to overcome before thermonuclear power stations based on this process can become a reality, but the problem of fuel supply is the least of them: the oceans of the Earth are practically an inexhaustible source of deuterium which plays the decisive part in the fusion process and its extraction from sea water is neither complicated nor expensive.
In short, peaceful uses of atomic energy are vast – but we must stop using it on weapons of mass annihilation.
TEXT 4. WHAT IS ELECTRICITY?
Vocabulary
Electricity - электричество
Electrical equipment - электрооборудование
precision - точность
electrostatics - электростатика
electrification - электризация
friction - трение
electron theory of matter - электронная теория материи
charge - заряд
charged bodies - заряженные тела
directly proportional - прямо пропорциональный
inversely proportional - обратно пропорциональный
electric field - электрическое поле
lines of force - силовые линии
condense - r конденсатор
magnetic field - магнитное поле
magnetic lines of force - магнитные силовые линии
magnetic phenomena - магнитные явления
magnetic induction - магнитная индукция
residual magnetism - остаточный магнетизм
flow - поток
resistance - сопротивление
a column of mercury - столбик ртути
cross-section - поперечное сечение
cross-sectional area - площадь поперечного сечения
in series - последовательно
in parallel - параллельно
superconductivity - сверхпроводимость
lattice - решетка
1. Translate the text into Russian.
What is electricity? When the question is asked the answer is sometimes given that "no one knows". This is far from being correct. Science knows a great deal about electricity. It is possible to explain its behaviour under numerous and varied conditions, (l) to design electrical equipment like motors, generators, and transformers with great precision and efficiency, and to even say of what electricity is composed.
This statement is not to be misinterpreted to mean (2) that science knows everything about electricity. We still have much to learn.
A student usually starts to study electricity with electrostatics. First the theories of electrification by friction are given and the behaviour of an electroscope is explained. Then the properties of conductors and nonconductors of electricity according to the electron theory of matter are considered. Electrostatics deals (3) mainly with charges.
The first quantitative measurements of the force between charged bodies was made by Coulomb, a French scientist and engineer, in 1780. He proved experimentally (4) that the force acting between two charges is directly proportional to the product of the two charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, or algebraically F=k(q1q2\d ) where F is the force, q1 and q2 are the charges, and d is the distance between them. The constant k has a value which depends upon the units of charge chosen and upon whether the charges are in vacuum, in air, or in some other medium.
Then the important concept—the electric field is discussed. The electric field is defined as the forces in the space around a charged body.
The student should be able to make diagrams illustrating the electric field and the lines of force in the neighbourhood of charged bodies, define capacity, name the essential elements of an electrical condenser, and its general purpose.
In the space surrounding every magnet there exists a magnetic field. Although this field cannot be seen, it can be demonstrated and mapped out (5) or in other words the magnetic lines of force can be drawn, each line starting at some point near the North pole and ending at a corresponding point near the South pole.
These magnetic lines of force do not really exist; but they are useful for describing the different magnetic phenomena.
ПРИМЕЧАНИЯ:
(1) under numerous and varied conditions – в самых разнообразных условиях
(2) This statement is not to be misinterpreted to mean - было бы неправильным толковать это положение в том смысле
(3) deals - зд. рассматривает
(4) proved experimentally - доказал экспериментальным путем
(5) mapped оut -зд. Нарисовано
2. Ответьте письменно на следующие вопросы:
1. What is electricity? 2. What is a magnetic field? 3. What connection is there between electricity and magnetism?
3. Переведите на русский язык следующие словосочетания:
electrification by friction, quantitative measurements, inversely proportional, units of charge, electric field, charged body, magnetic lines of force, static electricity, flow of electrons, chemical energy, electrical resistance, cross-section, difference of potential, in series, in parallel, reciprocal of resistance, free electrons, modern household.
TEXT 5. AUTOMATION
Vocabulary:
automation — автоматизация
previously— ранее
sequence— последовательность
assembly plant — сборочный завод
nonmanufacturing — непроизводственный
device— устройство, прибор
resemble— походить
efficiency— эффективность
flyball governor — центробежный регулятор
steam engine — паровоз
household thermostat — бытовой термостат
facilitate— способствовать
punched— перфорированный
aid— помощь
dimension— измерение, размеры
1. Translate the text into Russian.
Automation is the system of manufacture performing certain tasks, previously done by people, by machines only. The sequences of operations are controlled automatically. The most familiar example of a highly automated system is an assembly plant for automobiles or other complex products.
The term automation is also used to describe nonmanufacturing systems in which automatic devices can operate independently of human ch devices as automatic pilots, automatic telephone equipment and automated control systems are used to perform various operations much faster and better than could be done by people.
Automated manufacturing had several steps in its development. Mechanization was the first step necessary in the development of automation. The simplification of work made it possible to design and build machines that resembled the motions of the worker. These specialized machines were motorized and they had better production efficiency.
Industrial robots, originally designed only to perform simple tasks in environments dangerous to human workers, are now widely used to transfer, manipulate, and position both light and heavy workpieces performing all the functions of a transfer machine.
In the 1920s the automobile industry for the first time used an integrated system of production. This method of production was adopted by most car manufacturers and became known as Detroit automation.
The feedback principle is used in all automatic-coneath mechanisms when machines have ability to correct themselves. The feedback principle has been used for centuries. An outstanding early example is the flyball governor, invented in 1788 by James Watt to control the speed of the steam engine. The common household thermostat is another example of a feedback device.
Using feedback devices, machines can start, stop, speed up, slow down, count, inspect, test, compare, and measure. These operations are commonly applied to a wide variety of production operations.
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