Для фармацевтів-бакалаврів (стр. 4 )

Scientific classification: The genus Digitalis belongs to the family Scrophulariaceae. The common foxglove is classified as Digitalis purpurea.

Stinging Nettle

Easily recognized by its prominent serrated leaves, the stinging nettle is a herbaceous plant related to hops, marijuana, mulberries, and elms. The minute, fluid-filled hairs on the leaf surface and stem can cause a stinging or burning sensation on contact with the skin.

Scientific classification: Nettles make up the family Urticaceae of the order Urticales. Its representative genus is Urtica. The stinging nettle is classified as Urtica dioica. Ramie fiber, or China grass, is obtained from the species classified as Boehmeria nivea.

TEXT 4

The Function of Minerals

Every living cell on this planet depends on minerals for proper function and structure. Minerals are needed for the proper composition of body fluids, the formation of blood and bone, the maintenance of healthy nerve func­tion, and the regulation of muscle tone, including that of the muscles of the cardiovascular system. Like vitamins, minerals function as coenzymes, enabling the body to perform its functions, including energy production, growth, and healing. Because all enzyme activities involve minerals, minerals are essential for the proper utilization of vitamins and other nutrients.

The human body, as all of nature, must maintain its proper chemical balance. This balance depends on the levels of different minerals in the body and especially the ratios of certain mineral levels to one another. The level of each mineral in the body has an effect on every other, so if one is out of balance, all mineral levels are affected. If not corrected, this can start a chain reaction of imbal­ances that leads to illness.

Minerals are naturally occurring elements found in the earth. Rock formations are made up of mineral salts. Rock and stone are gradually broken down into tiny fragments by erosion, a process that can take literally millions of years. The resulting dust and sand accumulate, forming the basis of soil. The soil is teeming with microbes that utilize these tiny crystals of mineral salts, which are then passed from the soil to plants. The plants are eaten by herbivorous animals. We obtain these minerals by con­suming plants or herbivorous animals.

Nutritionally, minerals belong to two groups: bulk min­erals (also called macrominerals) and trace minerals (microminerals). Bulk minerals include calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and phosphorus. These are needed in larger amounts than trace minerals. Although only minute quantities of trace minerals are needed, they are neverthe­less important for good health. Trace minerals include boron, chromium, copper, germanium, iodine, iron, man­ganese, molybdenum, selenium, silicon, sulfur, vana­dium, and zinc.

Because minerals are stored primarily in the body's bone and muscle tissue, it is possible to develop mineral toxicity if extremely large quantities are ch situations are rare, however, because toxic levels of min­erals generally accumulate only if massive amounts are ingested for a prolonged period of time.

Once a mineral is absorbed, it must be carried by the blood to the cells and then transported across the cell membranes in a form that can be utilized by the cells. After minerals enter the body, they compete with one another for absorption. For example, too much zinc can deplete the body of copper; excessive calcium intake can affect magnesium absorption. Consequently, supplemental minerals should always be taken in balanced amounts. Otherwise, they will not be effective and may even be harmful. The absorption of minerals can also be affected by the use of fiber supplements. Fiber decreases the body's absorption of minerals. Therefore, supplemental fiber and minerals should be taken at different times.

TEXT 5

HERBS

Part 2

Lily of the Valley

The Convallaria majalis, known as the lily of the valley, is a perennial herb is popular for shady gardens. A dichotomous plant, it has long-stalked oval leaves and a stem of several white flowers. Because of their fragrance, the flowers are used in the manufacture of perfume. In cultivation, the lily of the valley is usually propagated from the terminal buds, called pips, of the underground rootstock. Once established, populations tend to persist with great tenacity.

Scientific classification: Lilies of the valley make up the genus Convallaria, of the family Liliaceae. The cultivated species is classified as Convallaria majalis.

Hawthorn, common name for any of a genus of small trees of the rose family. Hawthorns are native to temperate regions and are widely cultivated in the form of hedges. They have dense, sharply thorned branches; single, irregularly toothed leaves that turn to brilliant colors in autumn; tiny, red fruits even throughout the winter; and fragrant, white flowers borne in clusters. The best-known species is the English hawthorn, also called the mayflower.

Scientific classification: Hawthorns belong to the family Rosaceae. The English hawthorn is classified as Crataegus laevigata, the Washington hawthorn as Crataegus phaenopyrum, and the cockspur hawthorn as Crataegus crus-galli.

Ebers Papyrus (a medical guide written in 1550 bc) suggested that a lint tampon medicated with a mixture of acacia tree leaves, dates, and honey would prevent pregnancy. Acacia breaks down into lactic acid, which today is recognized as a spermicide. Other substances once used as spermicides include lemon juice, vinegar, soap solutions, cocoa butter, crocodile and elephant dung.

The genus is of great and varied economic importance, yielding edible seeds and valuable timber and gum.

Scientific classification: Acacias belong to the subfamily Mimosoideae of the family Fabaceae (formerly Leguminosae).

Wild Chamomile, a culinary herb with daisylike flowers that are dried and brewed as a soothing tea reputed to aid indigestion, calm muscle spasms, and relieve the pain and swelling of arthritis.

However, because it produces abundant seeds, it can become a troublesome weed if the flowerheads are not removed after they bloom. The flowers are an ingredient in herbal shampoos and can be used to make a yellow dye.

Scientific classification: Wild chamomile belongs to the Asteroideae subfamily of the family Asteraceae (formerly Compositae). The most widely recognized scientific name for wild chamomile is Matricaria recutita, although some sources refer to it as Matricaria chamomilla and others as Chamomilla recutita.

Sweet Chestnut Tree

The European, or sweet, chestnut, belongs to the same family as the oak. In Europe and in parts of Japan and China, chestnuts are an important source of food. Both the Japanese chestnut and the Chinese chestnut have been introduced into the United States with promising results. The Chinese chestnut produces a large, tasty nut, but the yield from the Japanese tree is of inferior quality.

Scientific classification: Chestnuts belong to the family Fagaceae. The American chestnut is classified as Castanea dentata, the chinquapin as Castanea pumila, the European chestnut as Castanea sativa, the Japanese chestnut as Castanea crenata, and the Chinese chestnut as Castanea mollissima.

TEXT 6

The Function of Amino Acids

Amino acids are the chemical units or "building blocks," as they are popularly called, that make up proteins. Amino acids contain about 16 percent nitrogen. Chemically, this is what distinguishes them from the other two basic nutrients, sugars and fatty acids, which do not contain nitrogen. To understand how vital amino acids are, you must understand how essential proteins are to life. It is protein that provides the structure for all living things. Every living organism, from the largest animal to the tiniest microbe, is composed of protein. And in its various forms, protein participates in the vital chemical processes that sustain life.

Proteins are a necessary part of every living cell in the body. Next to water, protein makes up the greatest portion of our body weight. In the human body, protein substances make up the muscles, ligaments, tendons, organs, glands, nails, hair, and many vital body fluids, and are essential for the growth of bones. The enzymes and hormones that catalyze and regulate all bodily processes are proteins. Proteins help to regulate the body's water balance and maintain the proper internal pH. They assist in the exchange of nutrients between the intercellular fluids and the tissues, blood, and lymph. A deficiency of protein can upset the body's fluid balance, causing edema. Proteins form the structural basis of chromosomes, through which genetic information is passed from parents to offspring. The genetic "code" contained in each cell's DNA is actually information for how to make that cell's proteins.

Proteins are chains of amino acids linked together by what are called peptide bonds. Each individual type of protein is composed of a specific group of amino acids in a specific chemical arrangement. It is the particular amino acids present and the way in which they are linked together in sequence that gives the proteins that make up the various tissues their unique functions and characters. Each protein in the body is tailored for a specific need; proteins are not interchangeable.

The proteins that make up the human body are not obtained directly from the diet. Rather, dietary protein is broken down into its constituent amino acids, which the body then uses to build the specific proteins it needs. Thus, it is the amino acids rather than protein that are the essential nutrients.

In addition to combining to form the body's proteins, some amino acids act as neurotransmitters or as precursors of neurotransmitters, the chemicals that carry information from one nerve cell to another. Certain amino acids are thus necessary for the brain to receive and send messages. Unlike many other substances, neurotransmitters are able to pass through the blood-brain barrier. This is a kind of defensive shield designed to protect the brain from toxins and foreign invaders that may be circulating in the bloodstream. The endothelial cells that make up the walls of the capillaries in the brain are much more tightly meshed together than are those of capillaries elsewhere in the body. This prevents many substances, especially water-based substances, from diffusing through the capillary walls into brain tissue. Because certain amino acids can pass through this barrier, they can be used by the brain to communicate with nerve cells elsewhere in the body.

Amino acids also enable vitamins and minerals to perform their jobs properly. Even if vitamins and minerals are absorbed and assimilated by the body, they cannot be effective unless the necessary amino acids are present. For example, low levels of the amino acid tyrosine may lead to iron deficiency. Deficiency and/or impaired metabolism of the amino acids methionine and taurine has been linked to allergies and autoimmune disorders. Many elderly people suffer from depression or neurological problems that may be associated with deficiencies of the amino acids tyrosine, tryptophan, phenylalanine, and histidine, and also of the branched-chain amino acids. These are amino acids that can be used to provide energy directly to muscle tissue. High doses of branched-chain amino acids have been used in hospitals to treat people suffering from trauma and infection.

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