Английский для студентов-экономистов. Часть 2 (стр. 9 )

V. Приведите в соответствие термины и их перевод.

average	постоянный
quarter	десятилетие
decade	четверть
constant	средний
increase	колебаться
fluctuate	стабилизировать(ся)
stabilize	привести к
result (in)	увеличить(ся)

VI. Приведите в соответствие термины из левой колонки с их толкованием из правой колонки.

Expand	get smaller
Contract	correct to nearest 10 or 100
Decline	increase in size
Amount	diagram which displays information visually
Round	get bigger
Number	slow fall
Chart	quantity of non-count nouns
Expansion	quantity of count nouns

VII. Сопоставьте каждое слово из левой колонки с его синонимом из правой колонки.

couple	steady
bring about	go up
constant	about
increase	decrease
be the reason for	pair
around	stroke
fall	cause
slash	lead to

VIII. Напишите цифры словами.

1.  Order No. 73/12G;

2.  The rate is $ 45/ person/ day, including VAT;

3.  L 1 = $ 5.42 approx.;

4.  21/2 hours;

5.  4.017;

6.  2008;

7.  9.11.1998 (two ways);

8.  *****@***com.

IX. Напишите выражения цифрами.

1.  Turnover is now three and a half million US dollars;

2.  One million five hundred and ninety four thousand;

3.  The thirty first of January seventeen oh-six;

4.  Two and a quarter per cent;

5.  Seven point one eight;

6.  Fourteen hundred and ninety three;

7.  Twenty eight pounds thirty seven;

8.  Nine degrees above zero.

X.  Напишите существительные от следующих глаголов.

Verb	Noun
increase	increase
accelerate
fluctuate
stabilize
improve
recover
fall

XI. Бегло прочитав отрывок, выберите правильный вариант ответа.

All problems in interest may be solved by use of one general equation which may be stated as follows:

Interest = Principal x Rate x Time.

Any one of the four quantities, that is, interest, principal, rate or time, may be found when the other three are known. The time is expressed in years.

The rate is expressed as a decimal fraction. Thus, 6 percent interest means six cents charged for the use of $ 1 of principal borrowed for one year.

1. At 4 percent interest for the use of $ 1 principal, one would pay

(A) six cents per year

(B)  twenty-five cents per year. (C) four cents per year

(D) one cent per year.

2. Which of the following would be a correct expression of an interest rate as stated in the equation for computing interest?

(A)  Four

(B)  .04 (C)4(D) 4/100.

XII. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1.  Exports fell dramatically between 1991 and 1993.

2.  Since 1999 they have been rising steadily, however.

3.  There was a slight fall in domestic sales in 2000.

4.  Sales increased dramatically from 280 to 400 units in one year.

5.  As you see, sales have been declining steadily over the past two years.

6.  If you refer to this chart, you will see that the workforce has contracted by 25% since 1998.

7.  Salary costs have gone up sharply over the last few years.

8.  The information on this chart points out that imports are now twice as much as in 1990.

9.  The number of people who smoke more than 20 cigarettes a day is at 11 percent overall.

10.  The table below gives information about the amount of money in US$ millions spent on advertising in Europe.

11.  The price of disk storage has fallen to about $2 per 300-page publication and continues to drop.

12.  The graph shows an increase in the number of overseas students at the university.

XIII. Переведите предложения на английский язык.

1. Цена этого товара — 167 рублей 30 копеек. 2. Спрос на наши услуги вырос на 30% за последние два года. 2. Оборот фирмы составляет 2 фунтов в год. 4. Курс доллара вырос на 3,5%. 5. Наша фирма была основана 15 мая 1998 г. 6. Мы собираемся расширить производство в 2010 г. 7. Мы хотели бы получить 10%-ную скидку. 8. Уровень сбыта ежегодно вырастает на 3.4%. 9. Цены на их услуги повысились на 23% в этом году. 10. В прошлом году инфляция обусловила снижение производства.

XIV. Нарисуйте график, чтобы проиллюстрировать приведенную ниже
информацию.

At 10 a. m. the library had 50 people. At noon it had a big increase to 200 people. Between 2 p. m. and 4 p. m. the number of people was stabilized at 150. Not many people were there at 5

Тема 14

ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКАЯ ПОЛИТИКА. ИНФЛЯЦИЯ.

TEXT 1

Economic Policy

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Ответить на вопросы:

1)  What are the goals of economic policy?

2)  What is economic growth?

3)  How can you explain the meaning of full employment?

4)  What is the definition of price stability?

5)  How can you explain the meaning of the economic analysis?

An economic policy is a course of action that is intended to influence or control the behavior of the economy. Economic policies are normally implemented and administered by the government. The goals of economic policy consist of value judgements about what economic policy should strive to achieve. While there is some disagreement about the appropriate goals of economic policy, there are three widely accepted goals including:

1.  Economic growth: It means that the incomes of all consumers and firms (after accounting for inflation) are increasing over time.

2.  Full employment: It means that every member of the labor force who wants to work is able to find work.

3.  Price stability: It means to prevent increases in the general price level known as inflation, as well as decreases in the general price level known as deflation.

Economic analysis

Opportunity cost is the important concept in economic analysis. The opportunity cost of a decision or choice that one makes is the value of the highest valued alternative that could have been chosen but was instead forgone. For example, suppose that you is faced with several ways of spending an evening at home. The choice made is to study English (perhaps because there is an English test tomorrow). The opportunity cost of this choice is the value of the highest valued alternative to the time spent studying English. While there may be many alternatives to studying English — making a date, watching TV, talking on the phone — there is only one alternative that has highest value. In this example, the alternative with highest value depends on one's own preferences. Say, it may be making a date. It would be considered the opportunity cost of studying English. There is also a fundamental assumption used in many economic models ceteris paribus. It is Latin for "all else being equal".

TEXT 2

INFLATION

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Составить 15 вопросов к тексту.

Inflation is a steady rise in the average price and wage level. The rise in wages being high enough to raise costs of production, prices grow further resulting in a higher rate of inflation and, finally, in an inflationary spiral. Periods when inflation rates are very large are referred to as' hyperinflation.

The causes of inflation are rather complicated, and there is a number of theories explaining them. Monetarists, such as Milton Friedman, say that inflation is caused by too rapid increase in money supply and the corresponding excess demand for goods.

Therefore, monetarists consider due government control of money supply to be able to restrict inflation rates. They also believe the high rate of unemployment to be likely to restrain claims for higher wages. People having jobs accept the wages they are being paid, the inflationary spiral being kept under control. This situation also accounts for rather slow increase in aggregate demand.

On the other hand, Keynesians, that is, economists following the theory of John M. Keynes, suppose inflation to be due to processes occurring in money circulation. They say that low inflation and unemployment rates can be ensured by adopting a tight incomes policy.

Incomes policies, though, monetarists argue, may temporarily speed up the transition to a lower inflation rate but they are unlikely to succeed in the long run2.

The costs of inflation depend on whether it was anticipated and on the extent to which the economy's institutions allow complete inflation adjustment.

The longer inflation continues, the more the economy learns to live with it. Indexation is a means to reduce the costs of some inflation effects. Indexed wages or loans mean that the amount to be paid or repaid will rise with the price level. Indexation has already been introduced in countries that had to live with inflation rates of 30 or 40 percent for years. And the more countries adjust their economies to cope with inflation, the closer they come to hyperinflation. Indexation means that high rates of inflation are much more likely to continue and even to increase.

Пояснения к тексту

1. are referred to as — называются

2. in the long run - в долгосрочный период, т. е. достаточно длительный для того, чтобы фирма могла изменить все факторы производства

Запомните.

ли (союз, который вводит придаточное предложение)

to mean (meant [ment]) — значить, означать

by means of - средство, средства (существительное, которое употребляется с глаголом в единственном и множественном числе) при помоги, посредством значить, иметь значение, означать

1. any - какой-нибудь; сколько-нибудь (местоимение употребляется в вопросительных предложениях и после союза if)

2. никакой; нисколько (в отрицательных предложениях)

3. всякий; любой (в утвердительных предложениях)

Словарный минимум к тексту

steady - устойчивый; постоянный; равномерный

inflationary spiral - инфляционная спираль (ситуация, когда темп инфляции постоянно и быстро повышается)

inflation rate-темп инфляции

hyperinflation гиперинфляция.

Упражнение 1

Вставьте предлоги, где это необходимо.

1. Cost... production depends... a great extent... the technology chosen and the price ... factors employed.

2. Reports of the European Union Statistical Commission show a number... ways... coping... the problem... scarce information resources.

3. Greater use ... women as labour force is sometimes argued to cause... higher unemployment.

4. A group comprising... the Persian Gulf oil countries, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman and the United Arab Emirates, accounts... less than one percent... the world's population.

5. An important problem facing the governments... most less developed countries is the extent ... which they want to maintain... a balance... the agricultural and industrial sectors... the economy.

6. Most economists agree that the government has a very important role... speeding up ... economic development.

7. The annual inflation rate has been found to be the percentage increase... year... the average price... goods and services.

8. Economic statistics are... interest... non-European-Union countries... addition... economic policy decision-makers... the European Union.

9. Typically, people who have just faced... unemployment are unlikely to make immediate downward adjustments... their standards... living. They are more likely to reduce... their savings... some extent.

12. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на

слова из словарного минимума к тексту Inflation.

1. With slow price and wage adjustment, an increase in money supply results in a temporary output rise, but eventually it only causes higher prices.

2. Although inflation may not have been anticipated at first, people learn to adjust to it.

3. It is frequently argued that reducing the average level of inflation means reducing risks of making decisions and plans.

4. Governments and political parties usually have to decide whether they like the redistribution of income caused by inflation.

5. Governments think that tight monetary policies aimed at coping with inflation are desirable. Though these policies may mean higher unemployment and lower output.

6. Industrial economies have to make severe adjustments to cope with the rising energy scarcity.

7. Indexation means that the wages agreement will remain correct for any anticipated inflation that occurred over the life of the contract.

8. The extent of demand, budget constraints and other factors have been found to account for the particular level of government protection for a certain commodity over time.

Упражнение 2

Раскройте скобки и употребите глаголы в соответствующей форме.

1. With money supply (to grow) relatively slowly (much less than four or five percent per year), this (to interpret) as a result of a tight monetary policy. A relatively rapid growth in the money supply (to consider) (to be) a result of an easy policy.

2. The difference between the real rate of interest and the nominal one is that the former (to adjust) for inflation whereas the latter (not to be).

3. A great number of people (cannot) (to increase) their wages rapidly and largely enough (to compensate) for price increases because they (to work) under long-term contracts.

4. Lenders (to be likely) (to hurt) by inflation.

5. A two-percent increase in the rate of inflation (to find) (to cause) a reduction in the real income of elderly households by about 10 percent.

6. In periods of inflation the value of money (to know) (to reduce).

7. Good results (to know) (to achieve) in Soviet economy during the early 1960s due to (to decentralize) decision-making and emphasis on profit rather than carrying out plans.

8. For the past fifty years, the price level in the United States (to move) only one way - up. In practically all years during this period, prices (to rise). Since 1955, there (not to be) any year when the price level (tofait). This (not to be) a hyperinflation, but it (to result) in a very large erosion in the value of the dollar. Like a beach slowly (to wear) away by the ocean, the dollar (to lose) gradually a considerable share of its value. Prices now (to be) over five times what they (to be) fifty years ago. Although a creeping (ползучая) inflation (to be) much less harmful than hyperinflation, it (to have) a number of social costs.

Упражнение 3

Переведите предложения на английский язык.

1. Ускорение денежного обращения вызывает более высокие темпы инфляции.

2. В индустриальных странах доля наличных денег составляет до 4% денежной массы в обращении.

3. Политика доходов - это попытка прямо повлиять на заработную плату и другие доходы.

4. Когда повышается темп инфляции, процентные ставки растут, а совокупный спрос падает.

5. Экономисты уже определили, что вызывает инфляцию.

6. Правительство может принять жесткую политику, которая должна обеспечить низкий темп инфляции.

7. Постоянное увеличение денежной массы должно вызвать инфляцию.

Упражнение 4

Раскройте скобки и употребите инфинитив в соответствующей форме.

1. Inflation is known (to become) stagflation when economic growth decreases but inflation continues to grow.

2. Inflation can (to account for), on the one hand, by the aggregate demand and supply relationship or, on the other hand, by the monetary situation in the economy.

3. Inflation is known (to characterize) by the increase in price level within a certain period of time.

4. The inflation rate is believed (to go down) soon as a result of measures taken by the government.

5. The processes occurring in money circulation and their effects on prices and profitability are likely (to influence) the extent of government intervention in Europe and the USA in recent years.

6. All previous attempts to adopt incomes policy are likely (to be) a failure.

7. The inflation rate has been found (to go down) within the last three months.

8. An increase in a society's aggregate income is expected (to ensure) higher consumer spending.

Тема №15

НАЛОГОВОЕ ПРАВО

TEXT 1

Taxation

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Taxation is one of the most prominent and controversial topics in economic policy.

Taxes are levied by the federal and local authorities, and embrace different spheres of economy. The most usual taxes are sales taxes, individual income taxes, property taxes, the corporation income tax, excise taxes, payroll taxes, etc.

There are four objectives of tax policy: simplicity, efficiency, fairness, and revenue sufficiency. While these objectives are widely accepted, they often conflict.

Simplicity means that relations of the taxpayer and the revenue authorities are as easy as possible. Further, the ultimate tax liability should be certain. Efficiency means that taxation interferes as little as possible in the choices people make in the private marketplace. The tax law should not induce a businessman to invest in real estate instead of research and development — or vice versa.

Taxes always affect behavior. Taxing an activity (like earning a living) is similar to a price increase. With the tax in place, people will typically buy less of a good — or partake in less of an activity - than they would in the absence of the tax. The most efficient (ax is a head tax, a tax on each person that is not affected by that person's income or by any of the person's characteristics. A head lax would not reduce the incentive to work, save, or invest. The problem with such a tax is that it would take the same amount from a high-income person as from a low-income person.

Fairness, to most people, requires that equally situated taxpayers pay equal taxes ("horizontal equity") and that better-off taxpayers pay more tax ("vertical equity"). The problem, though, is how to I judge whether two taxpayers are equally situated. For example, one taxpayer might receive income from labor while another j receives the same income from inherited wealth. And even if one taxpayer is clearly better off than another, there is little agreement about how much more the better-off person should pay.

Revenue sufficiency might seem a fairly obvious criterion of tax policy. Yet, the revenue sufficiency may conflict with efficiency and with fairness.

Likewise, other objectives of tax policy conflict with one another. High tax rates for upper-income households are inefficient but are judged by some to make the tax system fairer. Intricate legal provisions to prevent tax sheltering and thus make taxes fairer would also make them more complex. Such conflicts among policy objectives are a constant constraint on the making of tax policy.

Слова и выражения:

taxation — налогообложение prominent — выдающийся controversial — спорный, вызы­вающий споры topic — тема

levy — облагать налогом embrace — охватывать, обни­мать sphere — сфера payroll — платежная ведомость

excise — акциз; акцизный

simplicity — простота

fairness — честность, справедли­вость

sufficiency — достаточность

interfere — вмешиваться, ме­шать

induce — побуждать, склонять (к чему-либо)

behavior — поведение

shelter - укрытие, защита taxpayer - налогоплательщик

partake — принимать участие inherit — наследовать

absence — отсутствие likewise — таким образом

horizontal — горизонтальный intricate - замысловатый,
vertical — вертикальный сложный

sales tax — налог с продаж

individual income tax — подоходный налог с физического лица

property tax — налог на собственность

corporation income tax — корпоративный подоходный налог

excise tax — акцизный налог

payroll tax — налог на фонд заработной платы

ultimate tax liability — предельная задолженность по налогам,

предельный объем облагаемых средств vice versa — наоборот head tax — подушный налог tax sheltering — сокрытие средств от налогообложения

Упражнение 1

Ответьте на вопросы по тексту:

1.  What authorities are taxes levied by?

2.  What are most usual taxes?

3.  What are four objectives of tax policy?

4.  What does simplicity of tax policy mean?

5.  What does efficiency mean?

6.  Why can't tax policy interfere in the choice people make in the private marketplace?

7.What are the advantages and disadvantages of the head tax?
8. What does the fairness principle require?

9.What happens when legal provisions to prevent tax sheltering become more and more intricate?

10.How do taxes affect people's behavior in thе market?

Упражнение 2

Переведите на английский:

1.  ...налагаются федеральными и местными властями...

2.  ...четыре цели политики налогообложения...

3.  ...налогообложение вмешивается как можно меньше...

4.  ...инвестировать в недвижимость вместо научных иссле­дований и развития...

5.  ...налоги всегда влияют на поведение...

6.  ...люди, как правило, будут покупать меньше товаров...

7.  ...наиболее эффективный налог - подушный налог...

8.  ...более состоятельные налогоплательщики платят больший налог...

9.  ...получает такой же доход с унаследованного имуще­ства...

цели налоговой политики конфликтуют друг с дру­гом...

Упражнение 3

Из трех вариантов продолжения (а, Ь, с) выберете правильный:

1.  Simplicity means that relations of the taxpayer and the revenue authorities are a) different spheres of economy; b) as easy as possible; c) vice versa.

2.  The tax law should not induce a businessman to a) buy less of a good; b) take the same amount from a high-income person as from a low-income person; c) invest in real estate instead of research and development.

3.  Revenue sufficiency might seem a fairly obvious criterion of a) behavior; b) the ultimate tax liability; c) tax policy.

Упражнение 4

Заполните пробелы правильной формой глагола:

1. Taxation (have been, has been) one of the most prominent and controversial topics in economic policy.

2. Taxes (has been, have been) levied by the federal and local authorities.

3. The most usual taxes (are, is) sales taxes, individual income taxes, and property taxes.

4. Simplicity (means, mean) that relations of the taxpayer and the revenue authorities are as easy as possible.

5.  Taxes always (affect, affects) behavior.

6.  The most efficient tax (are, is) a head tax.

7.  The problem, though, (are, is) how to judge

whether two taxpayers are equally situated.

8.  Revenue sufficiency might (seems, seem) a fairly

obvious criterion of tax policy.

9. Intricate legal provisions would also (make, makes them more complex.

10. Such conflicts among policy objectives (is, are)

a constant constraint on the making of tax policy.

Упражнение 5

Переведите на английский:

Налоги всегда оказывают воздействие на поведение. Об­ложение налогом той или иной деятельности (например, срабатывания средств на жизнь) подобно подъему цен. С появлением налога люди, как правило, будут покупать меньше товаров или принимать меньшее участие в том или ином виде деятельности, чем они делали бы, если бы нало­ги не было. Наиболее эффективный налог — это подушный налог, налог на каждого индивида, на который не оказыва­ет воздействия ни уровень его дохода, ни какие-либо его индивидуальные особенности. Подушный налог не снизил бы мотивацию к труду, сбережениям, инвестициям. Про­блема с данным налогом состоит в том, что в соответствии с ним одна и та же сумма берется как с того, кто получает высокий доход, так и с того, чей доход невысок.