Лингвострановедение США (стр. 2 )

Americans of other regions are quick to recognize a Southerner by their dialect. Southern speech tends to be much slower and more musical; Southerners say “you all” as the second person plural.

Flannery O’Conner, a novelist, once said: “When a southerner wants to make a point, he tells a story; it’s actually his way of reasoning and dealing with experience.” So the South has been one of the most outstanding literary regions in the 20th century. Novelists such as William Faulkner, Robert Penn Warren, Thomas Wolf and Tennessee Williams wrote stories of southern pride and nostalgia for the rural Southern past.

The South is also known for its music. In the cotton fields and slave quarters of the region, black Americans created a new folk music, Negro spirituals. These songs were religious in nature and similar to a later form of black American music, blues and jazz.

The Midwest

The Midwest is known as a region of small towns and huge tracts of farmland where more than half of the nation’s wheat and oats are raised. The key to the region is the mighty Mississippi river; in the early years it acted as a lifeline, moving settlers to new homes and great amounts of grain to market. In 1840s, Mark Twain spent his boyhood here. He later described the wonders of rafting on the river in his novel “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn”.

As the Midwest developed, it attracted not only easterners but also Europeans. People from Germany, Sweden, Finland, Ireland, Poland and Ukraine settled here. Gradually the Midwest became a region of small towns, barbed-wire fences to keep in the livestock, and huge fields of wheat and corn. A hectare of land in central Illinois could produce twice as much corn as a hectare of fertile soil in Virginia. For these reasons, the region was nicknamed the nation’s breadbasket. Mid-westerners are seen as “down-to-earth”, commercially-minded, self-sufficient, friendly and straightforward. Class divisions are felt less strongly here than in other regions. Their politics tend to be cautious, though the caution could sometimes be peppered with protest. The region gave birth to the Republican Party formed in 1850s to oppose the extending of slavery into western lands.

The region’s position in the middle of the continent, far removed from the east and west coasts, has encouraged Midwesterners to direct their concerns to their own domestic affairs, avoiding matters of wider interest. Today the hub of the region remains Chicago, Illinois, the nation’s third largest city. This major Great Lakes port has long been a connecting point for rail lines and air traffic crossing the continent.

The Southwest

The Southwest differs from the Midwest in three primary ways. First, it is drier. Second, it is emptier. Third, the population of several southwestern states comprises a different ethnic mix. In spring the rain may be so abundant that rivers rise over their banks. In summer and autumn, however, little rain falls in much of Arizona, New Mexico and the western sections of Texas. Partly because this region is drier, it is much less densely populated than the Midwest. Outside the cities the region is a land of wide open spaces. One can travel for miles in some areas without seeing signs of human life.

Parts of the Southwest once belonged to Mexico; the US gained this land after the war with its southern neighbor between 1846 and 1848. Today three southwestern states lie along the Mexican border – Texas, New Mexico and Arizona. All have a large Spanish-speaking population.

The West

Americans have long regarded the West as a “last frontier”. Scenic beauty exists on a grand scale here. All eleven states are partly mountainous, and in Washington, Oregon and northern California the mountains present some startling contrasts. To the west of the mountains winds of the Pacific Ocean carry enough moisture to keep the land well watered, to the east, however, the land is very dry. In many areas the population is sparse. Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, Utah, and Idaho – the Rocky Mountains states – occupy about 15 percent of the nation’s total land area. Yet these states have only about 3 percent of the nation’s total population. Except for Hawaii, the western states have been settled primarily by people from other parts of the country. Thus, the region has an interesting mix of ethnic regions. In southern California people of Mexican descent play a role in nearly every part of economy. In the valleys north of San Francisco, Italian families specialize in growing grapes, bottling and selling California wine. Americans of Japanese descent traditionally managed truck farms in northern California and Oregon. Chinese Americans were once mostly known as farmers, laborers and owners of laundries and restaurants.

California is usually associated with sunshine, luxury and relaxed lifestyle. Life is more flamboyant here. Some observers trace this quality to the Gold Rush of 1848, which first brought many Americans west in search of gold discovered there. Others say that the California experience is mostly the result of sunny climate and the self-confidence that comes of success. Today California is the most populated of the US states and one of the largest. Many people think of California as the state that symbolizes the American dream.

Different places, different habits

What makes one region differ from another? There are many answers to this question and the answers vary from place to place. As a case in point, consider the role of food in American life. Most foods are quite standard throughout the nation. That is a person can buy packages of frozen peas bearing the same label in Idaho, Missouri or Virginia. Cereals, rise, candy bars and many other foods appear in standard packages. The quality of fresh fruits and vegetables generally does not vary from one state to another. A few foods are not available on national basis. They are regional dishes, limited to a single territory. In San Francisco, one popular dish is abalone, a large shellfish from the Pacific Waters. Another is a pie, made of boysenberries, a cross between raspberries and cranberries. Neither of these dishes is likely to appear on a menu in a New York restaurant, however. And if you ask a Boston waiter for either dish, you might discover he has never heard of it.

Another example is the way Americans use the English language. For many years experts have been writing rule for standard American English, both written and spoken. With coming of radio and TV, this standard use of the English language has become much more generalized. Both within several regions and subregions local ways of speaking, or dialects, still remain quite strong. In some farming areas of New England the natives are known for being people of few words. When they speak at all they do it so in short, rather choppy sentences and clipped words. Even in the cities of New England there are definite styles of speech. Southern dialect tends to be much slower and more musical. People of this region refer to their slow speech as a “southern drawl”.

Regional differences extend beyond food and dialects. Among more educated Americans, these differences center on attitudes and outlooks. An example is the stress given to foreign news in various local newspapers. In the East, where people look out across the Atlantic Ocean, papers turn to show greatest concern with what is happening in Europe, North Africa and Western Asia. In the towns and cities that ring the Gulf of Mexico, the press tends to be more interested in Latin America. In California, bordering the Pacific Ocean, news editors give more attention to events in East Asia and Australia.

DISCUSSION

1.  How can we explain the presence of Latin phrase E plubirus unum on every American coin? What do these words stand for?

2.  Where is most of the nation’s population concentrated? What can be said about the rest of the land?

The country is divided into several regions. What are they? Are borders between them strongly demarcated?

3.  In what aspects do American regions differ from one another?

4.  How can describe the spirit of New England?

What was the role of the Middle Atlantic region in the development of nation’s industry, economy and politics?

What was the basic difference between the development of the American South and the rest of the nation?

5.  What is the Mid-Western states economy based on?

6.  What are the particular features of the Southwestern states?

7.  How does the climate differ to the east and to the west of the Rockies?

UNIT 2

PART I

FIRST EXPLORERS FROM EUROPE

The first Europeans to arrive in North America, at least the first for whom there is solid evidence, were Norse. They were a sea-going people from Scandinavia in Northern Europe. The Vikings were traveling west from Greenland, where Eric the Red had founded a settlement around the year 985. Around the year 1000 his son Leif Ericson, a sailor from Iceland, and a group of Vikings sailed to the eastern coast of North America and landed at a place they called Vinland because of grape vines growing there. They explored the eastern coast of what is now Canada and spent at least one winter there. Remains of a Viking settlement were found in the Canadian province of Newfoundland. The archeologists discovered the foundations of huts built in Viking style and also iron nails and the weight, or “whorl” from a spindle. These objects were important pieces of evidence that the Viking had indeed reached America. Until the arrival of Europeans none of the Amerindian tribes knew how to make iron. And the spindle whorl was exactly like those used in Iceland.

Soon other Vikings followed Leif Ericson to Vinland, but the settlements they made there did not last. The hostility of the local Amerindians and the dangers of the northern seas made them give up their attempts to colonize Vinland. The Vikings sailed away and their discovery was forgotten except by their storytellers.

Five hundred years later the need for increased trade and an error in navigation led to another European encounter with America. In 1492 an Italian adventurer named Christopher Columbus set sail from Spain to find a new way from Europe to Asia. He aim was to open up a shorter trade route between the two continents. In Asia, he intended to load his three small ships – the Nina, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria – with silks, spices and gold, and sail back to Europe a rich man. He first sailed south to the Canary Islands, then he turned west across the unknown waters of the mid-Atlantic ocean. It was October 12, ten weeks after leaving Spain, when he stepped ashore on the beach of a low sandy island. He named the island San Salvador –Holy Savor. Columbus believed that he had landed in the Indies, a group of islands close to the mainland of India. For this reason he called the friendly, brown-skinned people who greeted him Indians. But Columbus was not near India and it was not the edge of Asia that he had reached. In fact he landed in the Caribbean, the islands off the shores of a new continent.

But the continent received its name after Amerigo Vespucci, one of several navigators who followed Columbus west. And the reason for that is that to the end of his life Columbus believed his discoveries were part of Asia. The man who did most to correct this mistaken idea was Amerigo Vespucci. He was an Italian sailor from the city of Florence. During the late 1490s he wrote some letters in which he described two voyages of exploration that he had made along the coast of South America. He was sure that the lands beyond the Atlantic were a new continent. To honor him, they were named America.

The first explorations of the continental United States were launched from the Spanish possessions that Columbus helped to establish. The first of these took place in 1513 when a group of men under Juan Ponce de Leon landed on the Florida coast. Ponce de Leon was a Spanish conquistador who came to the New World with Columbus on his second voyage (1498). He became the governor of the Caribbean island of Puerto Rico. The natives of Puerto Rico told de Leon that to the north lay a land rich in gold. This northern land, they said, also had an even more precious treasure – a fountain whose waters gave everlasting youth to all those who drank from it. In the spring of 1513 de Leon set off in search of the magic fountain. He landed in present day Florida and sailed all round its coast searching for the miraculous waters. And though he never found the Fountain of Youth, he did claim Florida for Spain. In 1565 Spanish settlers founded St. Augustine there, the first permanent European settlement on the mainland of North America.

When Columbus returned to Spain he took back with him some jewelry that he had obtained in America. This jewelry was important because it was made of gold. In the next fifty years thousands of treasure-hungry Spanish adventurers crossed the Atlantic Ocean to search for more of the precious metal. It was lust for gold that in the 1520s led Hernan Cortez to conquer the Aztecs, a wealthy, city-building Amerindian people who lived in what is now Mexico. In the 1530s the same lust for gold caused Francisco Pizarro to attack the equally wealthy empire of the Incas of Peru. With the conquest of Mexico the Spanish solidified their position in the Western Hemisphere and a stream of treasure from a new empire in Central and South America began to flow across the Atlantic to Spain.

In the years that followed other Spanish conquistadors undertook the search for gold in North America. Among the most significant Spanish explorations was that of Hernando de Soto. In 1539 his expedition left Cuba and landed in Florida. In search of riches he led his expedition westward and explored the southeastern United States discovering the Mississippi river.

Another Spaniard, Francisco Coronado, set out from Mexico in 1540 in search of the mythical “Seven Cities of Gold” that, Amerindian legends said, lay hidden somewhere in the desert. He never found them however Coronado and his men journeyed as far east as Kansas and became first Europeans to see the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River. Besides, Coronado’s expedition left the peoples of the region a remarkable gift: enough horses escaped from his party to transform life on the Great Plains and within a few generations the Amerindians became masters of horsemanship.

The growing wealth of Spain made other European nations envious. They became eager to share the riches of the new world. And while the Spanish were pushing up from the south, the northern portion of the present-day United States was slowly being revealed by English and French explorers.

In 1524 the French king Francis I sent an Italian sailor name Giovanni Verrazano to find a land rich in gold and a new sea route to Asia. Verrazano sailed the full length of the east coast of America, but found neither. However he anchored his ship in what is now the harbor of New York.

Ten years later another French explorer, a fisherman named Jacques Cartier, discovered the St. Lawrence River. He returned to France and reported that the forests lining the river’s shores were full of fur-bearing animals and that its waters were full of fish. The next year he sailed further up the river, reaching the site of the present-day city of Montreal. Cartier failed to find the way to Asia but his expeditions along the St. Lawrence River laid the foundations for the French claims to North America.

In 1497, just five years after Columbus landed in the Caribbean, English king Henry VII hired an Italian seaman named John Cabot to explore the new lands and to look again for a passage to Asia. Cabot sailed to the north of the continent and eventually he reached the rocky coast of Newfoundland. At first Cabot thought that this was China. A year later he made a second westward crossing of the Atlantic. This time he sailed south along the coast of North America as far as Chesapeake Bay. Though Cabot found no gold and no passage to the East his voyages were very valuable for the English as later they provided the basis for their claims to North America.

Claiming that you owned land in North America was one thing, actually making it yours was something quite different. Europeans could only do this by establishing settlements for their own people. Almost a century later Sir Walter Raleigh, an English adventurer, sent his ships to find land in the New World were English people might settle. He named the land they visited Virginia, in honor of Elizabeth I, England’s unmarried queen. In July 1585, 108 English settlers landed on Roanoke Island, off the coast of the present-day state of North Carolina. They built houses and a fort, planted crops and searched – without success – for gold. When they ran out of food and made enemies with the local Amerindian inhabitants they gave up and sailed back to England. In 1587 Raleigh tried again. His ships landed 118 settlers on Roanoke Island, including fourteen family groups. But when theBritish ship returned to Roanoke in August 1590, the settlement was deserted. There was no sign of what had happened to its people except a word carved on a tree – “Croaton”, the home of a friendly Indian chief, fifty miles to the south. Some believe that the Roanoke settlers were carried off by Spanish soldiers from Florida. Others think that they may have decided to go to live with Indians on the mainland. But the Roanoke settlers were never seen or heard of again.

DISCUSSION

1.  What do we learn about the first Europeans who arrived in North America? What were the pieces of evidence found by archeologists?

2.  Why did Christopher Columbus set sail from Spain in 1492? What was his objective?

3.  Why did Columbus name the native inhabitants of the island “Indians”?

4.  What do we learn about Amerigo Vespucci? Why was the new continent named to honor this man?

5.  What do we learn about the journeys made by Juan Ponce de Leon? What was he searching for in what is now Florida?

6.  What was the first European permanent settlement in North America? Where and when was it established?

7.  What made thousands of Spanish adventurers cross the Atlantic after Columbus returned from his voyage?

8.  What do we learn about the expeditions sent by English and French kings?

9.  Why did Sir Walter Raleigh, an English adventurer, name the land he visited Virginia?

10.  What do we learn about the colony he established?

PART II

EARLY BRITISH SETTLEMENTS

The first of the British colonies to take hold of North America was Jamestown. In 1607a group of about 100 men set out for the Chesapeake Bay on the basis of a charter which king James I granted to the Virginia (or London) Company. The aim of the Company was to set up colonies along the Atlantic coast of North America, between 34◦ and 38◦ north latitude. It was a joint stock company – that is, the investors paid the costs of its expeditions and in return were given the right to divide up any profits it made. The Company hoped that the settlers would find pearls, silver or gold, as the Spanish conquistadors had done in Mexico.

Seeking to avoid conflict with the Spanish, the settlers chose a site about 60 km up the James River from the bay. On the swampy banks they began cutting down bushes and trees and building rough houses for themselves. They named their settlement Jamestown and it became the first lasting British settlement in America. The early years of Jamestown were hard and it was partly the fault of the settlers themselves. The site they had chosen was low-lying and malarial. And though their English homeland was many miles across a dangerous ocean they failed to grow enough crops to feed themselves. Made up of townsmen and adventurers more interested in finding gold than farming, the colony was unequipped and unable to embark upon the new life in the wilderness. The colonists eagerly obeyed the Virginia Company’s orders because by doing so they hoped to grow rich themselves. But soon they began to die – in one, in twos, finally in the end of the year two out of every three of them were dead. Some died in Amerindian attacks, some of diseases, some of starvation.

Among the colonists there was a man named Captain John Smith, who emerged as the dominant figure and was the most able of the original Jamestown settlers. An energetic 27-year-old soldier and explorer, he had already had a life full of action when he landed in Virginia. It was he who organized the first Jamestown colonists and forced them to work. If he hadn’t done that the colony would probably have collapsed. Despite quarrels, starvation and Amerindian attacks his ability to enforce discipline held the little colony together through the first year.

When Jamestown ran out of food supplies John Smith set out into the forests to buy corn from Amerindians. On one of these expeditions he was taken prisoner. According to a story that he told later, the Amerindians were going to beat his brains out when Pocahontas, the twelve-year-old daughter of the chief, saved his life by shielding his body with her own. Pocahontas went on to play an important part in Virginia’s survival, bringing food to the starving settlers. In 1614 she married John Rolfe, a tobacco planter. In 1616 she traveled to England with him and was presented at court to King James I. Pocahontas died of smallpox in 1617 while waiting to board a ship to carry her back home with her newborn son. When the son grew he returned to Virginia, thus many Virginians today claim to have descended from him and so from Pocahontas.

In 1609 John Smith was badly injured in a gunpowder explosion and he was sent back to England. In his absence the colony descended into anarchy. It reached its lowest point in winter . Of the 500 colonists living in the settlement in October 1609, only 60 were still alive in March 1610. Stories reached England about settlers who were so desperate for food that they dug up and ate the body of an Amerindian they had killed during the attack.

Yet new settlers continued to arrive. The Virginia Company gathered homeless children from the streets of London and sent them out to the colony. Then it sent a hundred convicts from London’s prisons. Such emigrants were often unwilling to go. The Spanish ambassador in London told of three condemned criminals who were given the choice of being hanged or sent to Virginia. Two agreed to go, but the third chose to hang.

However some Virginia emigrants sailed willingly. For many English people these early years of the 17th century were a time of hunger and suffering. Incomes were low but the prices of food and clothing climbed higher every year. Many people were without work and if crops failed they starved. For them Virginia had one great attraction that England lacked: plentiful land. This seemed more important than reports of disease and famine there. In England the land was owned by the rich, and in Virginia a poor man could hope for a farm of his own to feed his family.

For a number of years after 1611 military governors ran Virginia like a prison camp. They enforced strict rules to make sure that work was done. But it was not discipline that saved Virginia, it was a plant that grew like a weed there: tobacco. Earlier visitors to America, like Sir Walter Raleigh, had brought the first dried leaves of tobacco to England. Its popularity had been growing ever since. In 1612 a young settler named John Rolfe discovered how to dry the leaves in a new way to make them milder. He began cross-breeding imported tobacco seed from the West Indies with native plants and produced a new variety that was pleasing to European taste. The first shipment of this tobacco reached London in 1614. London merchants paid high prices because of its high quality. Within a decade it had become Virginia’s chief source of revenue. Most of the settlers were busy growing tobacco. They cleared new lands along the rivers and ploughed up the streets of Jamestown to plant more. They even used tobacco as money, for example, the price of a good horse in Virginia was sixteen pounds of top quality tobacco. The possibility of becoming rich by growing tobacco brought wealthy men to Virginia. They obtained large stretches of land and brought workers from England to clear trees and plant tobacco.

Most of the workers in these early days were “indentured servants” from England. They promised to work for an employer for an agreed number of years, usually about seven, in exchange for free passage to America. In 1619 a small Dutch warship brought twenty captured black Africans. The ship’s captain sold them to the settlers as indentured servants. The blacks were set to work in the tobacco fields. But unlike the whites working beside them they were indentured for life. In fact they were slaves, although it was years before their masters openly admitted the fact.

Virginia’s affairs had been controlled so far by governors sent over by the Virginia Company. Now the Company allowed a body called the House of Burgesses to be set up. The burgesses were elected representatives from the various small settlements along Virginia’s rivers. They met to advise the governor on the laws the colony needed. Though few realized it at that time, the Virginia House of Burgesses was the start of an important tradition in American life – that people should have a say in decisions about matters that concern them.

The Virginia Company never made a 1624 it had run out of money. The English king dissolved the Virginia Company and made Virginia a royal colony that year. Now the English government was responsible for colonists. There were still very few of them. Fierce Amerindian arracks in 1622 had destroyed several settlements and killed over 350 colonists. Out of nearly 10 000 settlers sent out since 1607, a 1624 census showed only 1,275 survivors. But the hardships had tightened the survivors. Building a new homeland had proved harder and taken longer than anyone had expected. But this first society of English people oversees had put down living roots into the American soil. Other struggles lay ahead, but by 1624 it was clear that Virginia would survive.

DISCUSSION

1.  What was the first successful British colony in America? What was its geographical position?

2.  What aim did the Virginia Company pursue when it paid the cost of the expedition?

3.  Were the first years of Jamestown easy? Did colonists choose a good site for their settlement?

4.  Soon after the colony had been established many of its members died. What were the most common causes of death in Jamestown?

5.  Why is it believed that the colony would have collapsed if it had not been for its young leader Captain John Smith?

6.  Were all those people sent to Jamestown from England going willingly? Prove your point.

7.  At that time Virginia had one big attraction that England lacked. What was it?

8.  It was not strict discipline that helped Virginia to survive, but a plant that grew there. What was it?

9.  What do we learn about “indentured servants”? What was the difference between them and black slaves who worked in tobacco fields?

10.  Did the Virginia Company ever make big profits due to the colony?

PART III

PURITAN NEW ENGLAND

“Pilgrims” are people who make a journey for religious reasons. But for Americans the word has a special meaning. To them it means a small group of English men and women who sailed across the Atlantic Ocean in the year 1620. They are called the Pilgrim Fathers because they came to America to find religious freedom and are seen as the most important of the founders of the future USA.

In the 17th century Europe was torn by religious conflicts. For more than a thousand years Roman Catholic Christianity had been the religion of most of its the 16th century however some Europeans had begun to doubt the teachings of the Catholic Church. They were also growing angry at the wealth and worldly pride of its leaders.

Early in the century a German monk named Martin Luther quarreled with these leaders. He claimed that individual human beings did not need the Pope or the priests of the Catholic Church to enable them to speak to God. A few years later a French lawyer named John Calvin put forward similar ideas. Calvin claimed that each individual was directly and personally responsible to God. Because they protested against the teachings and customs of the Catholic Church, religious reformers like Luther and Calvin were called “Protestants”. Their ideas spread quickly through northern Europe.

Few people believed in religious toleration at that time. In most countries people were expected to have the same religion as their ruler. This was the case in England. In the 1530s the English king Henry VIII formed a national church with himself as its head. In the later years of the 16th century many English people believed that this Church of England was still too much like the Catholic Church. They disliked the power of its bishops, its elaborate ceremonies and the rich decorations of its churches. They also questioned many of its teachings. Such people wanted the Church of England to become more plain and simple, or “pure”. Because of these they were called Puritans. The ideas of John Calvin appealed most strongly to them.

When James I became King of England in 1603 he warned the Puritans that he would drive them away from the land if they did not accept his views on religion. His bishops became fining the Puritans and putting them in prison. To escape this persecution, a small group of them left England and went to Holland in 1607, where the Dutch granted them asylum. Holland was the only country in Europe whose government allowed religious freedom at that time. However the English Puritans never felt at home there. They were restricted to mainly low-paid laboring jobs and grew dissatisfied with this discrimination. After much thought and much prayer they decided to move again. Some of them – the Pilgrims – decided to go to America.

But first they returned to England and persuaded the Virginia Company to allow them to settle in the northern part of its American lands. In 1620 a group of 101men, women and children left the English port of Plymouth and headed for America. Their ship was an old trading vessel, the Mayflower. For many years it had carried wine across the narrow seas between France and England. Now it faced a much more dangerous voyage, for sixty-five days it battled through the rolling waves of the Atlantic Ocean.

A storm sent them far north of the land granted by the Virginia Company and they landed in New England on Cape Code. The Pilgrims did not have enough food and water, and many were sick. They decided to land at the best place they could find and in December of 1620 they rowed ashore to set up camp at a place they named Plymouth. It was a violent winter with cruel and fierce storms and the Pilgrims’ chances of surviving were not very high. Before spring came, half of a hundred settlers were dead. But the Pilgrims were determined to succeed. The fifty survivors built better houses and learnt how to fish and hunt. Friendly Amerindians gave them seed corn and showed how to plant it.

Soon other English Puritans followed the Pilgrims to America. In 1630 a large group of almost a thousand colonists settled nearby in what became the Boston area. These people left England to escape the rule of a new English King, Charles I. Charles was even less tolerant than his father James had been of people who disagreed with his policies in religion and government. The Boston settlement prospered from the start, its population grew quickly as more and more Puritans left England to escape persecution. Many years later, in 1691, it combined with the Plymouth colony under the name of Massachusetts.

The ideas of the Massachusetts Puritans had a lasting influence on the American society. One of their first leaders, John Winthrop, said that they should build an ideal community for the rest of mankind to learn from: “We shall be like a city on a hill, the eyes of all people are upon us.” To this day many Americans continue to see their country in this way, as a model for other nations to copy.

The Puritans of Massachusetts believed that governments had a duty to make people obey God’s will. They passed laws to force people to attend church and laws to punish drunks and adulterers. Even men who let their hair grow long could be in trouble.

Roger Williams, a Puritan minister in a settlement called Salem, believed that it was wrong to run the affairs of Massachusetts in this way. He objected particularly to the fact that the same men controlled both the church and the government. Williams believed that church and state should be separate and that neither should interfere with the other.

Williams’ repeated criticism made the Massachusetts leaders angry. In 1635 they sent men to arrest him. But Williams escaped and went south, where he was joined by other discontented people from Massachusetts. On the shores of Narragansett Bay Williams and his followers set up a new colony called Rhode Island. Rhode Island promised its citizens complete religious freedom and separation of church and state. To this day these ideas are very important to Americans.

By the end of the 17th century a string of English colonies stretched along the coast of North America. More or less in the middle was Pennsylvania. It was founded in 1681 by William Penn. Under a charter of the English king, Charles II, Penn was the proprietor, or owner, of Pennsylvania. Penn was a wealthy man and belonged to a religious group, the Society of Friends, commonly called Quakers. Quakers refused to swear oaths or to take part in wars. Their customs had helped to make them very unpopular with the English governments. When Penn promised his fellow Quakers that in Pennsylvania they would be free to follow their own ways, many of them emigrated there. Penn’s promise of religious freedom, together with his reputation for dealing fairly with people, brought settlers from other European countries to Pennsylvania. From Ireland came settlers who made new farms in the western forests of the colony. Many Germans came also, most were members of small religious groups who left Germany to escape persecution. They were known as the Pennsylvania Dutch. This was because English people at that time called most north Europeans “Dutch”.

New York had previously been called New Amsterdam. It had first been settled in 1626. In the 1620s settlers from Holland founded a colony they called New Netherlands along the banks of the Hudson River. At the mouth of the Hudson lies Manhattan Island, the present site of New York City. An Amerindian people called the Shinnecock used the island for hunting and fishing, although they did not live on it. In 1626 Peter Minuit, the first Dutch governor of the New Netherlands, “bought” Manhattan from the Amerindians. He paid them twenty-four dollars’ worth of cloth, beads and other trade goods. But like all Amerindians, the Shinnecock believed that land belonged to all men. They thought that what they were selling to the Dutch was the right to share Manhattan with themselves. But the Dutch, like other Europeans, believed that buying land made it theirs alone. These different beliefs about land ownership were to be a major cause of conflict between Europeans and Amerindians for many years to come. And the bargain price that Peter Minuit paid for Manhattan Island became part of American folklore. In 1664 the English captured it from the Dutch and re-named it New York. A few years later, in 1670, the English founded the new colonies of North and South Carolina. The last English colony to be founded in North America was Georgia, settled in 1733.