Моя академия (стр. 11 )

4. Since the results just described apply to any and all abiotic factors, we observe what is known as the Law of Limiting Factors: Any
one factor being outside its optimal range at any given time will cause
stress and limit the growth of an organism. The factor that is limiting
the growth is called the limiting factor. It may be any factor that affects
the organism. The Law of Limiting Factors includes the problem of
"too much" as well as the problem of "too little". For example, plants
may be stressed or killed by overwatering or overfertilizing as well as by underwatering or underfertilizing, a common pitfall for amateur gar­deners. The factor that is limiting may change from one time to anoth­er.

5. The Law of Limiting Factors was first presented by Justus von Liebig in 1840 in connection with his observations regarding the ef­fects of chemical nutrients on plant growth. He observed that restrict­ing any one of the many different nutrients at any given time had the same effect: it limited growth. Thus, this law is also called Liebig's Law of Minimums. Observations since Liebig's time, however, show that his law has much broader application. Beyond its application to all abiotic factors, it may be applied to biotic factors as well.

6. In summary, the biosphere consists of a great variety of environ­ments, both aquatic and terrestrial. In each environment we find plants, animal, and microbial species that are adapted to all the abiotic factors and also to each other in various feeding and nonfeeding ch environment supports a more or less unique grouping of organ­isms interacting with each other and with the environment in a way that perpetuates or sustains the entire group. That is, each environment with the species it supports is an ecosystem. Every ecosystem is interconnected with others through ecotones and through some species that cross from one system to another. At the same time, each species and, as a result, each ecosystem, is kept within certain bounds by limiting factors. That is, the spread of each species is at some point limited by its not being able to tolerate particular conditions, compete with other species, or cross some physical barrier.

7. A major concern of many environmentalists is how altering any factor, abiotic or biotic, may upset these limits and have far-reaching consequences through a ripple effect. Recognizing that everything in the biosphere is interconnected leads to the conclusion that nothing can be changed without affecting everything else to a greater or lesser degree. Obviously, humans have changed and are continuing to change things on a very large scale. What will these changes bring? Many envi­ronmentalists, including a number of scientists, promote the idea that we may be on the verge of a sudden and catastrophic "collapse of the biosphere" in which most if not all life may perish. On the other hand, cornucopians, also including a number of scientists, point out that there is no solid evidence to support such a "doomsday scenario"; much less that it is imminent. Indeed, they argue that all our experience to date should lead to the quite opposite conclusion: Humans have already caused the extinction of thousands of species and made manifold changes over most of the earth, but we and the biosphere are still doing well. Therefore, they maintain that continuing development as we have been does not pose an environmental threat.

6. Выберите один правильный ответ.

1. What is the main idea of the article?

a. The biosphere consists of a great variety of environments, both
aquatic and terrestrial.

b. Every ecosystem has two "sides": the organisms on one hand
and the environmental factors on the other.

c. Humans have changed and are continuing to change things on
a very large scale.

2. According to paragraph 2, the environment involves the interplay of:

a. rainfall, temperature, light, water and wind;

b. chemical nutrients, pH, salinity and fire;

c. many physical and chemical, or abiotic factors.

3. The difference in response to environmental factors determines

a. which organisms do or don't survive;

b. which species may or may not occupy a given region;

c. the degree to which each is present or absent.

4. The Law of Limiting Factors includes

a. any factor that affects the organism;

b. the problem of "too little";

c. the problem of "too much".

5. In paragraph 5, the Law of Limiting Factors was first presented

a. in connection with the observations regarding the effects of
chemical nutrients on plant growth;

Justus von Liebig;

c. in 1840.

6. Liebig's Law of Minimums may be applied to

a. our agricultural crops;

b. biotic factors;

c. all abiotic factors.

7. In paragraph 6, each environment with the species it supports is

a. an ecotone;

b. an ecosystem;

c. a unique grouping of organisms.

8. Every ecosystem is interconnected with others through

a. certain bounds of limiting factors;

b. ecotones;

c. some species that cross from one system to another.

9. Humans have changed and are continuing to change things on a
very large scale (paragraph 7). What will these changes bring?

a. The extinction of thousands of species.

b. Manifold changes over most of the earth.

c. A sudden and catastrophic "collapse of the biosphere".

7. Составьте диалог по одной из тем.

1.  What two "sides" are there in every ecosystem?

2.  Describe abiotic factors.

3.  Different species thrive under different conditions. How do you
feel about it?

4.  Define a fundamental biological principle.

5.  What is the Law of Limiting Factors? How do you feel about it?

6.  Explain how every ecosystem is interconnected with others.

7.  Compare a major concern of many environmentalists and the con­clusion of corncopians.

8. Расскажите о своей специальности (environmental engineering).

PART VI

THE CIVIL ENGINEERING FACULTY

1. Ответьте на вопрос:

What activities is the term “civil engineering” usually applied to?

2. Прочитайте и выучите.

municipal – муниципальный, городской

utility – коммунальный

prefabricated – сборный, готовый

computed strength – расчетная прочность

limited strength – предельное сопротивление

bearing strength – прочность на смятие

bending strength, flexural strength – прочность на изгиб

rupture strength, Tensile strength – сопротивление разрыву

compressive strength – прочность на сжатие

frictional strength – сопротивление трению

shear strength – сопротивление сдвигу

shrinkage stress strength – усадочное напряжение

torsional strength – сопротивление кручению

wraping stress strength – напряжение от коробления

basement – основание

partition – перегородка

sewerage – канализация

insulation – изоляция

superintendent – управляющий

Составьте 3 предложение с новыми словами.

3. Обратите внимание на произношение буквы “U” в различных буквосочетаниях.

[ju:] students, municipal, utility, computed, insulation, superintendent, manufacturing, universal, curriculum;

[u:] manufacturing, influence, solution;

[Λ] rupture, structures, construction, subject, study;

[ə] faculty, structures, curriculum.

4. Прочитайте и переведите текст.

THE CIVIL ENGINEERING FACULTY

The students of this faculty are trained in six qualifications, among which are building and economical specialities. The former are Architectural Design, Industrial and Civil Engineering, Manufacturing of Building Structures. The latter are Municipal Construction Economy, Economy and Management of Construction and Real Estate Expertise. In fact, the faculty has already got the status of an institute.

The speciality of building engineer is the most universal and wide-spread. In order to be a competent specialist the students of the faculty study a number of specialized subjects: Building Materials, Geodesy, Geology, Soil Mechanics, Bases and Foundations, Theoretical Mechanics and Strength of Materials. The latter is one of the most important subjects, because it deals with different kinds of loads. A building engineer should take into account the loadings which influence the building; he should be able to calculate the computed and limited strength and stresses of a building. Here may be included: bearing, banding, rupture, compressive, flexural, frictional, shear, tensile, shrinkage, torsional and wrapping strength.

The students of the faculty study various structures and buildings, their parts and elements and also construction technology. The structures and buildings are usually built of concrete, steel and wood. A structure consists of a basement, walls, partitions, floors, ceilings and a roof. All this the students study by listening to courses of lectures, as well as having practice at construction sites, where they get practical experience. The students of the faculty also get acquainted with Architecture; they study the architectural styles and various architectural structures.

The construction of any building, house or office is connected with utilities, lightning, heating, ventilation, water supply and sewerage. Besides, the students of the faculty have lectures on Construction Physics which deals with acoustics, heat insulation and microclimate. A good building engineer should follow the appearance of new building materials and achievements of modern construction.

Specializations Municipal Construction Economy and Economy and Management in Construction have acquired more importance nowadays. They are connected with general concepts of economy and manufacturing, trade and service. Here the economists in the sphere of construction are trained. The qualifications deal with the management of the city economy, including the enterprises of utility service: bath-houses, restaurants, wash-houses and hairdressing saloons.