Передмова (стр. 5 )

-  In chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, or molecular structure. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structure, it is invariably accompanied by an increase or decrease of energy of the substances involved.

-  In geology, continental drift, mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquake are phenomena that can be explained in terms of energy transformations in the Earth’s interior. While meteorological phenomena like wind, rain, hail, snow, lightning, tornadoes and hurricanes, are all a result of energy transformations brought about by solar energy on the planet Earth.

-  In cosmology and astronomy the phenomena of starts, nova, supernova, quasars and gamma ray burst are the universe’s highest-output energy transformations of matter. All stellar phenomena (including solar activity) are driven by various kinds of energy transformations. Energy is transformed either from gravitational collapse of matter (usually molecular hydrogen) into various classes of astronomical objects (starts, black holes, etc.) or from nuclear fission.

In thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized. Heat means ‘energy in transit’ and dynamics relates to ‘movement’. Thermodynamics studies the movement of energy and how energy instills movement. Historically, thermodynamics developed out of need to increase the efficiency of first steam engines.

Energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat or work. Entropy can be defined for any system. A system is composed of particles, whose average motions define its properties. Properties can be combined to express internal energy and thermodynamic potentials. So, thermodynamics describes how systems respond to changes in their surroundings. This can be applied to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering. The results of thermodynamics are essential for other fields of physics, chemistry, aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, biology and materials science.

Exercise 18. Form Participle II of the given verbs. Translate them.

Describe, tell, permit, drive, study, apply, hold, write, read, do, change, build, give, lead, make, send, bring.

Exercise 19. Translate word combinations with Participle II into Ukrainian.

Written work, one of the questions discussed, well-known scientist, well-done translation, rule explained by a teacher, predicted disaster, energy stored in cells, released potential energy, energy is often said to be, increased amount, chemical transformation accompanied by heat release, transformed energy form, defined properties.

Exercise 20. Identify: (a) nouns, (b) adjectives, (c) verbal forms, (d) adverbs among the following words. Translate them.

Natural, direction, practice, light, difference, lightning, different, spread, available, transform, randomly, transformation, likely, movement, balanced, continuously, direct, move, composed, property.

Exercise 21. Derive nouns from the following verbs by adding the following suffixes: -t(ion), - ance, - ence, -ment. Translate them.

Move, direct, differ, transform, generate, depend, create, attract, define, compose, combine, apply, perform, measure, attach, develop, explain, describe, predict, permit, concentrate, act, react, accompany.

Exercise 22. Write adjectives related to the following nouns. Name the suffixes, used to form adjectives.

Availability, variety, practice, significance, change, use, nature, biology, response, structure, gravitation, efficiency, reversibility.

Exercise 23. Give corresponding adverbs. Translate the pairs.

Unlike, random, significant, inevitable, rapid, current, common, fast, good, late, hard, relative, easy, recent, equal, statistical.

Exercise 24. Use negative prefixes un-, im-, ir-, in-, dis-, mis- to form the opposites of the following words.

Variable, sufficient, predictable, balances, efficient, regular, ho-nest, able, experienced, inform, organized, available, understand, foreseen, reversible, advantageous, interpret.

Exercise 25. Match the synonyms.

1)  attribute 2)  gravity 3)  concentrate 4)  increase 5)  integrate 6)  permit 7)  transform 8)  fulfil

a)  perform b)  change c)  allow d)  combine e)  growth f)  quality g)  focus h)  attraction

Exercise 26. Work in pairs. Make questions for each sentence with reference to the text.

1.  Thermodynamics studies the effects of changes in temperature, pressure and volume on physical systems.

2.  We use heat for a lot of things.

3.  Energy is measured in many ways.

4.  Thermodynamics describes how systems respond to changes in their surrounding.

5.  The science developed out of need to increase the efficiency of early steam engines.

6.  Energy has always existed in one form or another.

7.  The results of thermodynamics are essential for other fields of physics and chemistry.

Exercise 27. Put the verbs in brackets into Present Simple Active or Passive.

1.The Laws of thermodynamics (apply) to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering.

2.Thermodynamics (study) the movement of energy and how energy (instill) movement.

3.Thermodynamics (study) by second-year students.

4.Energy can (exchange) between physical systems as heat or work.

5.Heat (move) from a hot area to a colder area and work (extract).

6.Energy can (find) in a number of different forms.

7.Thermodynamics (describe) how systems (respond) to changes in their surroundings.

Exercise ment on the following statements.

1.  While one form of energy may be transformed to another, the total energy remains the same.

2.  All natural phenomena can be explained in terms of energy transformations.

3.  Potential energy is transformed into more active types of energy such as kinetic or radiant energy.

4.  There is no absolute measure of energy.

5.  Throughout the history of science, energy has been expressed in several different units.

Exercise 29. Translate into English.

1.  Перетворення енергії з однієї форми в іншу спричиняють такі природні явища, як вітер, дощ, град, сніг, блискавка, ураган та інші.

2.  Ентропія – це функція стану термодинамічної системи, зміна якої визначається відношенням кількості тепла до термодинамічної температури системи.

3.  Енергія, з точки зору біології, відповідає за ріст і розвиток біологічної клітини.

4.  Ядерна потенційна енергія виникає під час процесів ядерного розщеплювання або злиття.

5.  Одну форму енергії можна трансформувати в іншу за допомогою певних пристроїв: наприклад, батарея змінює хімічну енергію в електричну; гребля – гравітаційну потенціальну енергію в кінетичну енергію води, що тече.

6.  Лопатки турбіни і генератор створюють електричну енергію.

7.  Перетворення енергії у природі можна поділити на дві групи: термодинамічно зворотні і незворотні.

Exercise 30. Speak on «Energy Transportation».

Exercise 31. Memorize the following words and word combinations to text 3.

Designate – позначати

validity – придатність; обґрунтованість; доведеність

spontaneous – мимовільний, спонтанний

emission – випромінювання, виділення; поширювання

equilibrium – рівновага

equivalence – рівноцінність, еквівалентність

assume – вважати, припускати

observable – помітний; гідний уваги

internal – внутрішній

conversely – навпаки; обернено

asymptotically – асимптотично

approach – досягати

cease – припиняти

motive power – рушійна сила

zeroth law – нульовий закон (термодинаміки)

Exercise 32. Read, translate and write a brief summary of text 3.

Text 3. The Laws of thermodynamics

The term thermodynamics was coined by James Joule in 1859 to designate the science of relations between heat and 1858, ‘thermo-dynamics’, as a functional term, was used in William Thomson’s paper «An Account of Carnot’s Theory of the Motive Power of Heat». The first textbook in thermodynamics was written in 1859 by William Rankine, originally trained as a physicist and mechanical engineering professor at the University of Glasgow. Thermodynamics is the study of the conversion of heat energy into different forms of energy.

In thermodynamics, there are four laws of very general validity, they do not depend on the details of the interactions or the systems being studied. Hence, they can be applied to systems about which one knows nothing other than the balance of energy and matter transfer. Examples of this include Einstein’s prediction of spontaneous emission around the turn of the 20th century and current research into the thermodynamics of black holes.

The four laws are:

- Zeroth law of thermodynamics, stating that thermodynamic equilibrium is an equivalence relation.

If two thermodynamic systems are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third one, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. It is assumed in every measurement of temperature. Thus, if we want to know if two objects have the same temperature, it is not necessary to bring them into contact and see whether their observable properties change with time.

A system in thermal equilibrium is a system whose macroscopic properties (like pressure, temperature, volume, etc.) are not changing in time. A hot cup of coffee on a kitchen table is not in equilibrium with its surroundings because it is cooling off and decreasing in temperature. Once its temperature stops decreasing, it will be at room temperature, and it will be in thermal equilibrium with the surroundings.

The first law of thermodynamics basically states that a thermodynamic system can store or hold energy and that this internal energy is conserved. Heat is a process by which energy is added to a system from a high-temperature source. In addition, energy may be lost by the system when it does mechanical work on its surroundings, or conversely, it may gain energy as a result of work done on it by its surroundings. The first law states that this energy is conserved. The change in the internal energy is equal to the amount added by heating minus the amount lost by doing work on the environment.